Course Outline
Isle of Saints and Scholars
The Early History of Christian Ireland saw Irish monks keeping the light of Christianity alive in largely pagan Europe. During the late Roman period, Ireland had become Christian, but in the interim the pagan Anglo-Saxon and Germanic peoples had separated Christian Ireland from the still-Christian Mediterranean. Monasteries abounded and Irish missionary work helped to bring Christianity to parts of northern Europe. From this period date the beautiful book of Kells and many of the beautiful Celtic crosses still to be found across the Irish countryside.
The British Ascendancy
In the 12th century, English King Henry II received both an invitation from Ireland and permission from the Pope (Adrian IV, the only English pope to date) to come into Ireland. Politically he was invited to oppose the faction of Brian Boru; religiously, he was instructed to insist on the primacy of Roman over Irish Christianity. In the event, Boru proved to be the last High King of Ireland, Henry II being accorded the title "Lord of Ireland", and Roman Christianity prevailed.
Marian Plantations and the Pale
By the sixteenth century, English rule in Ireland had proved ephemeral. English influence was minimal and English resources could not support a permanent occupation. The Tudor monarchs hit upon several devices to increase their authority in Ireland. Henry VII (r. 1509-1547) proclaimed himself King of Ireland (instead of Lord). He thus became the owner of all Irish lands, and re-granted them to Irish nobles, becoming the liege lord of each of them. Henry's daughter Mary Tudor established the first "plantation" in Ireland. English settlers moved to Dublin, creating a permanent presence, and a "Lord Lieutenant" ruled Ireland in the name of the Queen. English influence thus extended to the "Pale", or the area around Dublin. Under Queen Elizabeth (r. 1558-1603), more ambitious plans were undertaken to control Ireland. Ambitious military expeditions were undertaken in the 1590s. The Irish, hoping for Spanish help, held their own for years, but surrendered to the English soon after Queen Elizabeth's death (of which they did not know) in 1603.
The Ulster Rising
In 1606, King James I (r. 1603-1625) sent a colony of Scots Presbyterians to settle in the north of Ireland (Ulster). They were given the lands of displaced Catholics, and constituted the beginning of the Protestant Northern Irish community. In 1641, frustrated Catholics undertook a rebellion, that was brutally put down by British soldiers. The memory of the violence remains to this day. During the 1640s, the various factions of Irish people became involved in the British civil wars. When King Charles I (whom most Irish supported), was defeated and executed in 1649, severe punishment was visited upon Ireland. Additional property was seized, and many were exiled, either to the far west of Ireland, or to Barbados (to "Hell or Connacht").
The Penal Era
In 1688, the United Kingdom again changed its government, and the Catholic King James II (r. 1685-1688) was replaced by the Protestants William of Orange and his wife Mary (r. 1689-1702). This began a very sad period for the Catholic Irish. After the Battle of the Boyne River (1689) and the victory of William over James, severe Penal Laws were imposed. In accordance with these laws, it was illegal for Catholics in the United Kingdom to own property, become barristers, attend university, or be elected to a government office. This situation persisted until Daniel O'Connell and the Irish league helped to get the British government to repeal the Penal Laws in 1829.
Famine
One of the seminal events in Irish history and memory is the great famine of the 1840s. The situation had arisen over many years that the Irish became tenant farmers and relied upon very small plots of land, sown with potatoes, to feed their large families. In the 1830s, English observer John Stuart Mill warned of impending calamity, but nothing was done, given the enormous popularity of free trade philosophies at the time. When the potato crop failed in 1846 and again in 1847, thousands of people starved to death or died from cholera--even while cash crops such as beef and butter were being exported in exchange for the all-important rent money. British efforts to assist were only mildly effective. The Corn Laws were repealed in 1846, allowing the importation of grain; and many British landlords tried to help tenants by purchasing them passage to America or other assistance; workhouses were created to assist the poor, but few entered them for fear of cholera. An armed rising against the United Kingdom in 1848 inspired significant patriotism, but failed politically.
The Land Wars and Home Rule
Numerous issues came into focus in late nineteenth century Ireland. While Roman Catholics could now own land, few had the money to purchase any. While English governance tried to help the Irish somewhat, it was clear that independence, or at least Home Rule (a separate Irish Parliament) would be necessary to ensure attention to Irish interests. Numerous factions, groups and ideas jockeyed for prominence, but Home Rule became the most popular movement. Charles Stewart Parnell, a Protestant member of Parliament, argued effectively in Ireland and in Parliament on behalf of Home Rule, and even made the English Prime Minister William Gladstone into an advocate. As the world approached World War I, the British Parliament finally (in 1911) promised that Irish Home Rule would be implemented after the War.
The 1916 Rising
In the meantime, the Irish Ireland movement opposed Home Rule. Advocating the learning of Gaelic and the playing of Irish games, the movement held out for complete independence from the United Kingdom, not merely Home Rule. On Easter Monday, 1916, independence was declared and a rebellion undertaken. The expected weapons from Germany had been seized by the English, and the rising failed--succeeding only in holding the Post Office on O'Connell Street. The majority of the signers of the declaration, including Padraig Pearse, was executed by the English. Home Rule was still scheduled for realization, in 1921. In 1921, though, the northern counties refused to participate in Home Rule, and wished to stay within the United Kingdom. Negotiating for the South, Eamon de Valera agreed to the separation of the six northern counties from the rest of Ireland. Civil War ensued from 1921-1922 (War of the Black and Tans), but the result was that the northern counties remained part of the United Kingdom.
The Irish Republic
The Republic created a constitution and demonstrated its independence (not yet recognized by the United Kingdom) by remaining neutral during WWII. This act was very controversial, as it implied support of Hitler, but was a successful show of the independence of Eire, or the Irish Republic. The independent republic remained quite poor economically, as the industrial areas were in the north. The increase in tourism in the 1950s, coupled with select deficit spending by the government, resulted in an economic upturn through the 1960s. The recession of the 1970s hit hard, though, and the Irish economy has not recovered until recently, with the assistance provided by membership in the European Community. Laws associated with the Catholic religious dogma, such as the prohibition of birth control, are gradually being diminished.
The Northern Counties and the Troubles
Ulster remained within the United Kingdom. Its industrial wealth and the benefits, such as health care, of participating in the United Kingdom have been quite advantageous for Ulstermen. On the other hand, the Royal Ulster Constabulary (a British peace-keeping unit), the Civil War of the early 1920s, and the existence of a disadvantaged and often angry minority of Catholics (often embodied in the Irish Republican Army) have made the situation grim. A particularly violent era, the Troubles, began in 1969, when a march in Derry on behalf of civil rights for Catholics in Ulster turned violent. The subsequent few decades have seen tragic violence on all sides, and futile attempts to reach some sort of accord that would satisfy Protestants and Catholics, both in the republic and in Ulster.
Prospects
Numerous attempts have been and are being made to deal with the numerous problems in Ireland. The list goes something like this: Catholics in the north are a minority often subjected to prejudice and sometimes to violence. Some Catholics in the north still prefer the association with Britain, and do not want to become part of a Catholic republic. The north of Ireland wants desperately to stay in the United Kingdom for health care and other benefits; and the Protestants surely do not want to become part of the more impoverished Catholic republic. Unsuccessful attempts are on-going to get the RUC and the IRA (provisional branch, or Provos) to disarm. The Catholic political party Sinn Fein is distrusted as it is closely affiliated with the IRA. Britain would dearly love to be rid of the problem, and perhaps Ulster itself, as it has led to terrorist attacks throughout England and in considerable expense. Incremental progress is made from time to time, but the Troubles are so complex that a solution may prove to be elusive.