As far as allusions to Cicero’s rhetoric, there are indications that he was considered to be “top notch,” “untouchable.” Murphy states that during the Middle Ages, “he(Cicero) is viewed as the unquestioned “Master of Eloquence(or magister eloquential)”(334). Numerous teachers, encyclopedists, and royalty--from Saint Augustine to Dante--raved about Cicero’s rhetoric. “Indeed, there is hardly a major medieval writer who does not mention Cicero whenever there is occasion to speak of discourse”(334). Even those who wrote sermon and letter-writing manuals used Cicero’s knowledge to enhance their works(335).
Because Cicero was regarded as the “prime orator,” Murphy’s study easily concluded that his works were in great use, mostly because or their intense circulation during the Middle Ages. “The most frequently used Ciceronian books prior to the fifteenth century were his youthful De inventione and, the book that is often accredited to Cicero, Rhetorica as Herennium”(335). Within 600 years, these two works appeared in library catalogues and were quoted by writers over 130 times. Cicero’s later work, De oratore, on the other hand, was popular only in the fifteenth century(335).
The study of rhetoric was the center of education in medieval universities. Murphy points out that “it was probably the rhetoric of Cicero”(336). Cicero is cited in numerous documents at the University of Paris in the latter part of the thirteenth century, and the library of Paris Sorbonne contained twenty-four of Cicero’s works. Cicero’s rhetoric played a major role in education, more so in the southern Italian universities. “Perhaps it would be accurate to say that in the north, Cicero survived largely in reputation and in physical presence--that is, in seldom-consulted books resting on library shelves and in grammatical teaching--while south of the Alps, Cicero exercised a direct influence through constant use”(336). Ultimately, the Italian approach to Cicero was more humanistic. They believed in Cicero’s claim that a person could shape the future of a society through speech, while farther north, scholars in Paris “distrusted the shifting, problematical influence of the basic Ciceronian belief”(336).
The teaching of law in the Italian universities was also touched by the great Cicero. By taking a look at De inventione and ad Herennium, it is easy to see how adaptable these doctrines are to the study of law. Even the author of the anonymous work, Rhetorica ecclesiastica, was inspired by Cicero’s belief in the power of speech. Murphy states, the author tries “to instruct readers in judicial issues partly from canon law and partly from the artistic doctrine of the rhetoricians”(337).
Even more, the translations of Cicero’s rhetoric are proof of his recognized eloquence. During the Middle Ages, his works were translated into “vernacular tongues”--meaning, into the normal-spoken language of a country, not the literary, or learned language. A large part of De inventione was translated into French and Italian in the 1260’s by Brunetto Latini, Florentine notary and teacher. And, Thomas Wilson, was the first to translate Ciceronian rhetoric into English in his Art of Rhetorica, in 1530. None of these translations, though, made any contributions or gave insight to the study of Cicero’s rhetoric. But, his rhetoric was written in Latin, so it could be easily translated(337-8). That is important in itself.
“In the context of medieval society, the existence of commentaries can only mean the use of a book in the schools. “Unfortunately,...not one single example has ever been printed in full”(339). This is why it was impossible for Murphy to give an extensive study of commentaries on Cicero, which would be the fifth, and final, element to his study of “Cicero’s Rhetoric in the Middle Ages.” Although, old library catalogues show a presence of rhetorical commentaries, the authors are not named. But, just their presence shows Cicero’s works, especially De inventione and ad Herennium, were used continually through the Middle Ages(341).
All of these factors--the medieval allusions to Cicero’s rhetoric, library holdings of his books, his role in university life, uses of rhetorical doctrines, translations of his work and commentaries--prove Cicero’s wide reputation of greatness as a rhetorician. His influences on the Middle Ages are made relevant in James Murphy’s article. History indicates that Marcus Tullius Cicero was, indeed, the “Master of Eloquence.
Amanda Lyons, ALL1864@uncwil.edu