Department of Psychology
Ruth M. Hurst, Ph.D., BCBA
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Department of Psychology Ruth M. Hurst, Ph.D., BCBA |
Study Guide: Chapter 15 (pp. 259-275)
This chapter describes avoidance. One problem with analyzing avoidance is that
it is sometimes hard to figure out what the contingency is that results in the
increased likelihood of a response. There doesn't seem to be a concrete
reinforcer.
1. Describe the procedure that was used to correct Sid's posture. What was the
effect of this procedure on the likelihood of the response?
2. What is an avoidance contingency? Explain how the example with Sid (#1) fits
the definition of an avoidance contingency. Try to fill in the contingency
boxes.
3. Make up your own every-day example of an avoidance contingency. Diagram it
and indicate the effect on behavior.
4. Why is it appropriate to say that the avoidance contingency is a
reinforcement contingency?
5. Describe the procedure that Eve and Joe used to increase the likelihood of
Jimmy's making eye-contact. (a) Explain how the treatment fits the definition of
avoidance. (b) Diagram the contingency, and indicate the effect on the
likelihood of the response.
6. What is an avoidance-of-loss contingency? Give an example of your own and
diagram it. What is the effect on the likelihood of the response? (What are the
main differences between an avoidance-of-loss contingency and a penalty
contingency?)
7. What are the main similarities and differences between avoidance and escape
contingencies? (It is sometimes said that the response in an escape contingency
removes a current aversive conditions whereas the response in an avoidance
contingency prevents a future aversive event. Explain what this statement means
in terms of the contingency diagrams.)
8. What is a warning stimulus (p. 266; 270-271)? The complicated diagram on p.
266 shows that there is both an avoidance contingency and an escape contingency
for lever-pressing. What is the aversive stimulus for the escape contingency?
9. What procedure did Hefferline, Keenan, and Harford (1958) use to study
learning without awareness in humans? What was the result of their study that
convinced Malott that "contingencies can control behavior, even when we are
unaware of those contingencies, the behavior, or that any controlling is going
on." (pp. 273-275)
Study Guide: Chapter 16 (pp. 276-284)
This chapter describes a fairly complex type of contingency--one that,
nevertheless, occurs often in daily life. For that reason it is important to be
able to interpret this kind of contingency correctly and understand the
behavioral effects. One source of confusion is that people sometimes think they
can simplify the contingency. But in doing so, they are forced to treat
non-behavior as behavior. You can avoid this confusion by remembering the "Dead
man's test" as a way to decide what is and what isn't behavior. This use of the
"Dead man's test" comes up frequently in this chapter.
1. Without peeking, diagram the contingency that resulted in a decrease in the
frequency of Sid's eye-batting. What kind of contingency is this?
2. Why would it not be appropriate to describe the contingency that reduced the
frequency of Sid's eye-batting as a simple escape contingency of the following
form? (Hint: Dead man's test)
3. Complete the two diagrams on page 276 that have empty boxes.
4. Without peeking, give the definition of the
punishment-by-prevention-of-removal contingency.
5. Be able to reproduce the contingency diagram at the lower-right of page 277.
Be able to explain why each of the following diagrams are unsatisfactory for
representing the contingency that resulted in the decreased frequency of Jimmy's
head-banging.
6. What kind of contingency was responsible for the decrease in Jimmy's head
banging?
7. Be able to give the definition of punishment-by-prevention-of a-reinforcer
contingency.
8. What is similar and what is different between a penalty contingency and a
punishment-by-prevention-of a-reinforcer contingency? Why can both be regarded
as types of a punishment contingency?
9. Make up your own every-day example of punishment-by-prevention-of a-reinforcer
contingency. Diagram it and indicate the effect on behavior.
10. On pages 280-281 the authors describe a procedure used to reduce the
frequency of Todd's disruptive behavior at the dentist. What is unsatisfactory
about viewing this procedure as an escape contingency (page 281)? What is
unsatisfactory about viewing this procedure as a reinforcement contingency (page
282)? What does Malott regard as the appropriate interpretation of the
contingencies?
11. What is a DRO contingency? Why does Malott recommend not describing
contingencies in terms of DRO?
Study Guide: Chapters 17, 18, 19 (parts of each)
These chapters discuss schedules of reinforcement. The study questions address
only a few points in each of the three chapters.
1. What does the term, intermittent reinforcement, mean?
2. What is a fixed-ratio (FR) schedule? Describe the pattern of responding
produced by a fixed-ratio schedule. Provide an everyday example.
3. What is the postreinforcement pause? What are the conditions that produce the
postreinforcement pause? Why might the postreinforcement pause seem maladaptive?
4. What is similar and what is different between a fixed-ratio schedule and a
variable-ratio (VR) schedule of reinforcement? In what way are the response
patterns different? Provide an everyday example of a variable-ratio schedule.
5. What is similar and what is different between a fixed-interval (FI) schedule
and a variable-interval (VI) schedule? In what way are the response patterns
different? Provide an everyday example of a variable-interval and a
fixed-interval schedule.
6. Does Malott et al. think the deadline for a term paper is like a
fixed-interval schedule? Why or why not?
7. What is the procedure that can produce superstition in the pigeon? What is
the evidence that a superstition was developed? Is the procedure a
fixed-interval schedule?
8. What are concurrent contingencies? What is the relevance of concurrent
contingencies to our everyday concept of choice?
9. In class we will discuss a particular type of concurrent contingency that can
result in "impulsive" rather than "optimal" choices. The contingencies involve
different amounts and delays of reinforcers (or aversive conditions). You should
be able to sketch these kinds of concurrent (or competing) contingencies and
discuss their relevance to "impulsive versus optimal" behavior.
Study Guide: Chapter 20 (p. 331-347)
1. Malott suggests that stimulus-response chains are common in our everyday
lives. Define stimulus-response chain.
2. On page 333, Malott gives an example of the stimulus-response chain operating
when you eat potatoes. Think of a different example of a sequence of responses
that might be interpreted as a stimulus-response chain, and diagram at least
three segments (links). Each stimulus in a chain is said to have dual (two)
functions. What are the two functions of each stimulus?
3. The book emphasizes the use of forward chaining for establishing a
stimulus-response chain. Why would backward chaining often be a better method of
establishing a stimulus-response chain? (Hint: Think of nonverbal subjects.)
4. Describe a situation in which you would use backward chaining to establish a
stimulus-response chain. Diagram the stimulus response-chain and describe the
procedure you would us to establish your stimulus-response chain. Which link in
the chain would you establish first? (What role does shaping play in backward
chaining?)
5. What is a differential reinforcement of low rate contingency (DRL)? What
effect does it have on responding?
6. In the section entitled "Ways to reduce undesirable behavior"(pp. 342-348)
the authors summarize 9 different procedures that one could use to decrease the
frequency of some response. These procedures are summarized in a table on page
348. Go over this table with your interteach group.
.
Imagine that you are on the staff of a school or other institution (say, one for
the education of children with various kinds of developmental disabilities). One
of the children (Tim) throws temper tantrums excessively. As a result, Tim is
unable to benefit from the educational program in the school--at least not to
the degree that he needs to. Your job is to consider each of the 8 procedures
listed in the summary on p. 348, and indicate how each one might be used to
correct the child's problem. Specifically, (a) define and diagram the procedure,
and (b) indicate the pros and cons of using the procedure for reducing the
excessive frequency of Tim's tantrums. It would be good to pretend with your
interteach partner that you are both on the staff of the school, and you can
then work together to develop the best possible treatment program for Tim.
Study Guide: Chapter 21 (p. 353-376)
This chapter is on the topic of what is called respondent, Pavlovian, or
classical conditioning (these terms mean the same thing).
1. Pavlov demonstrated that a previously neutral stimulus could acquire the
ability to substitute for an effective eliciting stimulus. Describe the kind of
learning experience that caused the neutral stimulus to acquire this ability.
That is, what were the essential conditions that the dog had to experience? (And
what does elicit mean?)
2. Define and give an example of each of the following: neutral stimulus (NS);
unconditioned stimulus (US); conditioned stimulus (CS); unconditioned response
(UR); conditioned response (CR). What is the difference between the UR and the
CR?
3. Interpret the following as an example of respondent conditioning. Identify
the NS, US, CS, UR, and CR.
Until last Saturday, little Billy showed no signs of autonomic nervous system
arousal to the sound of the buzzing bee. But then Saturday, Billy heard the
sound of the buzz and was stung. Since then Billy has shown signs of autonomic
nervous system arousal upon hearing the buzz.
4. Suppose we also notice that Billy also calls to mommy for her to hold him
when he hears the buzz. Is the response of calling out likely to be the result
of respondent conditioning? What kind of behavior is the calling-out? And what
kind of contingency probably caused the likelihood of calling out under such
circumstances to increase?
5. What is the extinction procedure for respondent conditioning? What is the
result of the extinction procedure?
6. What is higher-order conditioning? Provide an illustrative example.
7. What is systematic desensitization? What is its relevance to respondent
conditioning?