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Title:

An overview of resilience in gifted children. By: Bland, Lori C., Sowa, Claudia J., Roeper
Review, 02783193, Dec94, Vol. 17, Issue 2

Database:

Academic Search Premier

AN OVERVIEW OF RESILIENCE IN
GIFTED CHILDREN

Contents

A
Look at Characteristics

Characteristics
of Resilience

Comparisons
of Characteristics of Giftedness and Resilience

Implications
for Resilience in Gifted Children

Cognitive
Appraisal in Gifted Children: A Mechanism for the Development of Resilience in
Gifted Children

Applications
for Working with Gifted Students

Future
Research

REFERENCES

Theory about and research into
resilience is based on the study of individuals who
have experienced risk or trauma. Typically, when risk or trauma has been
present, individuals have exhibited behavioral, emotional, intellectual,
academic, or social problems (for example, see Wolfe & Mosk, 1983). Despite
the experience of risk or trauma, some individuals have not exhibited
difficulties, but have been able to thrive in their environments (Beardslee,
1989). The ability to thrive or bounce back from adverse experiences is
described as resilience. Rutter (1987) defined
resilience as "protective factors" which "modify,
ameliorate, or alter a person's response to some environmental hazard that
predisposes to a maladaptive outcome". Mrazek and Mrazek (1987) explained
constitutional and environmental factors interact to help
children develop resilience.

Individuals who are considered resilient share many
common characteristics with gifted
children. Although it is not our contention that all
gifted children are
resilient or that all resilient individuals are
gifted, these similarities have implications for
understanding the social and emotional adjustment of
gifted children.
A
Look at Characteristics

Characteristics of Resilience

Resilience in adults.
Personality characteristics associated with resiliency in adults
include those which may buffer the effects of stress, such as self-efficacy,
learner resourcefulness, optimism, and constructive thinking (Lazarus, 1993).
Kobasa (1979) identified hardiness as a personality trait that buffers the
effects of stress in adults. Druss and Douglass (1988) defined hardiness as a
cognitive component of resilience. Kobasa (1979) found
three factors of social and emotional evaluations integral in successful coping
for hardy adults: the control one has over a situation, the commitment one has
made to the situation, and the degree of challenge which the situation poses.
For example, a hardy adult may evaluate a stressful work situation by asking
questions such as: what are my choices in this situation? (control); if I am not
pleased with any of these choices, how much do I want to keep this job?
(commitment); and since I want to keep my job, how can I use this task as an
opportunity to improve my skills? (challenge). Whereas the task was initially
stressful, the hardy adult appraised the situation, realized that choices were
available, decided the task was important to job performance, and refrained the
task as a challenge. For adolescents, Morrisey and Hannah (1987) found that
personality hardiness has four components: control, challenge, commitment to
school, and commitment to self.

Resilience in
children. Resilient
children, like adolescents and adults, exhibit
particular personality traits. Werner (1984) described resilient
children as more likely to seek out new situations, to
play hard, to lack fear, and to be self-reliant. In other studies, resilient
children demonstrated a strong sense of independence
and created a sense of normalcy even in chaotic situations (Block & Block,
1980; Anthony, 1987). They also developed a source of refuge from stressful
environments through creative interests, hobbies, extra-curricular activities,
or school (Kauffman, Grunebaum, Cohler, & Gamer, 1979; Werner & Smith,
1982).

Resilience in
children is related to their interpersonal skills. For
example, resilient children elicited positive
responses from adults and asked for assistance from adults (Garmezy &
Rutter, 1983; Werner, 1984). Werner and Smith (1982) described resilient
children as active, affectionate, and good-natured.
They developed a social network that provided support, were well-liked by their
peers, had several close friends, relied on neighbors or other adults for
advice, and modeled themselves after a favorite teacher (Garmezy & Rutter,
1983; Kauffman et al., 1979; Werner & Smith, 1982).

Environmental factors may affect the development of
resilience in children.
Miller (1990) contended that resilience is influenced
by the emotional support a child receives during a
traumatic event. Taylor (1991) asserted development of
resilience in African-American
children is enhanced by socialization in preschool,
parent involvement in the school, good early peer relations, a positive school
environment, and a goodness of fit between the classroom and the
child. The kind of stressor may not affect the
development of resilience in
children if children and
families have opportunities available to them such as community support, a less
stressful environment, and access to medical, educational, and social services
(Hauser, Vieyra, Jacobson, & Wertlieb, 1985; Mrazek & Mrazek, 1987).

Comparisons
of Characteristics of Giftedness and Resilience

Individual Characteristics Common to
Resilience and Giftedness. Characteristics
used to describe resilient individuals may also be used to describe
gifted children. For
example, resiliency researchers described task commitment, academic achievement,
verbal ability, reflectiveness, intelligence, the ability to dream, the desire
to learn, maturity, an internal locus-of-control, risk-taking, and
self-understanding as traits in resilient individuals (Beardslee, 1989; Hauser
et al., 1985; Mrazek & Mrazek, 1987; Rutter, 1987). Similar traits have been
discussed as characteristics of gifted students by
Baldwin (1987), Levine and Tucker (1986), Maker (1982), Olszewski, Kulieke,
& Buescher (1987), Renzulli and Smith (1978) and Scott (1988).

Characteristics of Families Fostering
Resilience and Giftedness. Academic
achievement and cultural activities are encouraged in families of both
gifted and resilient
children (Mrazek & Mrazek, 1987; Olszewski et al.,
1987; Scott, 1988). In addition, parents from both groups of families modeled
such behaviors for success as task commitment, the ability to dream, to set
goals, and to adapt (Beardslee, 1989; Hauser et al., 1985; Mrazek & Mrazek,
1987; Rutter, 1987; Scott, 1988; Suarez-Orozco, 1987). Unconditional acceptance
and regard for the child, time for positive
interaction, support, and communication with the
child, and positive relationships among other family
members are described or identified as characteristics of families that nurture
both giftedness and resilience (Cornell &
Grossberg, 1987; Hauser et al., 1985; Miller, 1990; Mrazek & Mrazek, 1987;
Olszewski et al., 1987: Rutter, 1987).

Research on Characteristics of
Resilience in Gifted
Children Although many comparisons may be
made between characteristics associated with giftedness and
resilience and characteristics of families nurturing
both giftedness and resilience, there is a dearth of
research about the relationship between the two constructs. Two studies by Kline
and Short (1991a, 1991b) examined developmental changes in emotional
resilience in gifted
preadolescents and adolescents. Feelings of hopefulness and encouragement
increased as gifted boys matured into adolescents
(Kline & Short, 1991a). For gifted high school
girls, feelings of self-confidence decreased. These girls had lower self-esteem
than gifted junior high school girls. Feelings of
hopefulness and encouragement also decreased as girls matured into adolescents.
Furthermore, adolescent girls were more perfectionistic and vulnerable than the
younger girls (Kline & Short, 1991b).
Implications
for Resilience in Gifted Children

Several theorists postulated that
gifted children are prone to
social and emotional difficulties or are likely to have specific
social/emotional concerns because they are gifted (see
for example, Altman, 1983; Buescher, 1985; Delisle, 1992; Freeman, 1983;
Roedell, 1984). However, the review of the resilience
literature indicated that gifted
children have resources that may enable them to
develop social/emotional strengths. For example, verbally
gifted children possess an
ability to discuss their difficulties with an adult which Miller (1990) claimed
will help them to develop resilience. Kline and Short
(1991a, 1991b) did not address the question of why emotional
resilience changes in gifted
adolescents, nor did they examine the mechanism by which the changes occur. An
examination of the adjustment literature indicated that cognitive appraisal may
be a key mechanism used by gifted
children as they develop
resilience.

Cognitive Appraisal in Gifted
Children: A Mechanism for the Development of
Resilience in Gifted
Children

Lazarus and Folkman (1984) defined cognitive appraisal
as the evaluations made by the mind or body to determine if stress is harmful.
However, the cognitive appraisal paradigm is criticized by Ryan-Wenger (1992)
and Compas (1987) as reflecting adults' cognitive development and functioning
and, therefore, not applicable for children.
Ryan-Wenger (1992) pointed out that no theories have been specifically designed
to explain children's stress and coping processes.
Furthermore, Dise-Lewis (1988) found that children's
stressors are different than those of adults. For
children, stress is related to interactions and
experiences with parents, family members, teachers, and social conditions that
are often out of the realm of the child's control (Compas, Malcarne, &
Fondacaro, 1988).

Coping in children is
influenced by the situation in which the stress occurs and the developmental
level of the child (Blanchard-Fields, Suiskey, &
Robinson-Whelen, 1991; Brotman-Band & Weisz, 1988). For
children, coping responses lie in the middle of the
continuum between reflexes and purposeful responses to stress. Therefore,
children's cognitive and social development may affect
what children experience as stressful and their
ability to cope with these experiences (Ryan-Wenger, 1992).

The cognitive appraisal paradigm, however, may be
applicable to the gifted population given their
cognitive development. Sowa, McIntire, May, and Bland (in press) found that
gifted children as young as
nine used cognitive appraisal to cope with various stressors. They used a
cognitive appraisal mechanism that is similar to that used by adults to cope and
to recover from or adjust easily to stressful life events (Sowa, et al., in
press). The ability to use cognitive appraisal may be related to
gifted students' earlier development of formal
operations and abstract thinking (Carter & Ormrod, 1982). Indeed, this early
development of abstract thinking and formal operations may be the mechanism
which helps gifted children
to develop resilience. For example, a
child who has been neglected by peers may think, "I
really don't want to play tag - I want to read." The
child evaluated the situation and made a decision
about how to cope rather than reacting reflexively. Cognitive appraisal also may
foster gifted children's
adjustment while hindering their adaptation to the environment. The
child from the previous example may be happy reading
and consistently choose reading rather than learning how to make friends. A
teacher or parent, however, may perceive this as a lack of the
child's ability to adapt.
Applications
for Working with Gifted Students

Gifted Students in the
Regular Classroom. Ross(1993) pointed to several symptoms indicating
our nation is failing our bright students: students are unprepared for
challenging college courses; our highest achieving students compare poorly with
the highest achieving students in other nations; and students going to college
in other countries are expected to know more and to be able to use higher level
thinking skills when they enter college. Ross indicated that low expectations
for education, "a distrust of the intellect" (p. 13), mixed messages about the
value of intellectual achievement, negative stereotypes, and peer pressure
convey the message for students "to strive for academic adequacy, not academic
excellence" (p. 14). Furthermore, teachers reported that they do little to meet
the intellectual needs of gifted students in the
regular classroom (Archambault, Westberg, Brown, Hallmark, Zhang, & Emmons,
1993). In a follow-up observational study, less than 20% of observed classroom
activities were geared toward the needs of the gifted
students in the class (Westberg, Archambault, Dobyns, & Salvan, 1993).

Sowa et al. (in press) found that
gifted students created stimulation and challenge in
order to cope with their environments. An educational system that fails
gifted students intellectual needs contributes to the
popular stereotype that gifted
children are not adjusted because they are acting out
when they are not challenged. these children adjusted
to their environment though they may not be choosing to adapt to their
environment. Therefore, it is imperative that classroom teachers recognize that
the need for stimulation is a characteristic of gifted
students and that these needs are not being met in regular classrooms. Thus, the
image of the gifted student as not adjusted (see for
example, Gallagher, 1990) is perpetuated.

Gifted
Children with Special Needs. Understanding
resilience is also important in working with
gifted children with special
needs, whether the children are economically disadvantaged, have a learning
disability or a physical limitation, speak English as a second language, live in
troubled homes, or are underachievers. three implications from the
resilience literature for working with populations of
gifted children with special
needs are understanding development, counseling, and providing a safe
environment. For example, children who have been
abused or live in homes where substances are being abused, who are poor or
migrant, or who speak limited English, may be demonstrating levels of
achievement much higher than expected given their difficult life circumstances.
Historically, these children are underrepresented in
gifted programs. However, if teachers, counselors, and
administrators can identify specific characteristics of
resilience in these
children, the resilience
characteristics may serve as possible indicators of a
child's abilities.

Gifted
children's use of cognitive appraisal has implications
for working with underachievers or children with
learning disabilities or physical limitations. These
children can be taught how to effectively evaluate a
situation and use an appropriate coping skill or how to continue to develop the
skills which enabled past successes. Counselors may be able to teach
gifted children how to use a
verbal ability, for example, to redirect a difficult situation. Our review
indicated that teachers can model behaviors contributing to
resilience, such as, task commitment, setting goals,
and adaptability. They can also provide unconditional acceptance and regard for
the child, support and maintain effective
communication and positive relationships with the
child's family.

Kline and Short (1991 a; 1991 b) implied that
resilience in gifted
children may be related to gender issues. For
gifted females, it is important to determine why
resilience declines in adolescence. It is also
important to determine if there is a relationship between achievement and
resilience. Perhaps for
gifted girls encouraging the development of resilient
behaviors may influence their achievement patterns in high school and college.
Encouraging the development of resilient behaviors in childhood may be important
for reversing underachievement in boys. Examining hardiness may provide clues
for understanding underachievement. Thus, it is important to examine the
decisions underachievers make about control, commitment to school, and
challenge.
Future
Research

There are two bodies of literature in the field of
gifted education that have attempted to answer the
question, "How adjusted are gifted students in
comparison to the general population?" One body of literature is theoretical and
proposed that giftedness interferes with children's
social and emotional development, that gifted
children are more prone to specific adjustment
difficulties, or that individuals need to be taught how to survive a
child's giftedness (see for example, Altman, 1983;
Buescher, 1985; Delisle, 1992; Freeman, 1983; Galbraith, 1983; Gallagher, 1990;
Roedell, 1984).

The empirical literature in
gifted education compared
gifted students' adjustment with that of the general
population. three sets of findings emerged from these studies: that
gifted students were less prone to feelings of
loneliness, anger, and anxiety than the general population (Kaiser & Berndt,
1985; Reynolds & Bradley, 1983; Scholwinski & Reynolds, 1985); that
gifted students were less likely to exhibit somatic
problems such as depression, withdrawal, psychosis, or hyperactivity (Cornell
& Grossberg, 1987; Grossberg & Cornell, 1988; Ludwig & Cullinan,
1984); and that the incidence of severe adjustment difficulties were similar to
that of the general population nine percent (Gallucci, 1988).

The resiliency literature provides empirical evidence
that specific intrapersonal characteristics lead to the development of
resilience in individuals. If these intrapersonal
characteristics are similar to characteristics of
gifted students, is
resilience a personality trait of
gifted individuals or an acquired skill?

Do the characteristics of
gifted children lead to
specific patterns of coping responses which enable
children to develop resiliency, regardless of
adaptation? What is the effect of the ability to develop
resilience prior to adapting to one's environment on
the social and emotional needs of gifted
children? Future studies should examine these and
other questions which examine individual gifted
children's social and emotional strengths.

Studies are needed to discover the specific factors
contributing to adjustment difficulties in the small percentage of the
population of gifted students to determine if the
difficulties are related to the child's giftedness or
to problems that all children experience (such as
divorce, death, illness, or abuse). However, it is more important to study the
much larger population of gifted students who have no
reported adjustment difficulties to determine what factors contribute to the
social and emotional health of gifted students.
Examining gifted children's
healthy adjustment may lead to indications for working with
gifted students with adjustment difficulties. the
study of resilience may indicate coping skills
counselors can teach to students.

* Research for this paper was supported under the Javits
Act Program (grant no. R206R00001) as administered by the Office of Educational
Research and Improvement, U.S. Department of Education. Grantees undertaking
such projects are encouraged to express freely their professional judgment. This
paper, therefore, does not necessarily represent positions or policies of the
Government, and no official endorsement should be inferred.
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~~~~~~~~

By Lori C. Bland, Claudia J. Sowa and Carolyn M.
Callahan

Lori Bland is a Research and Program Evaluation
Specialist for the Fairfax County Public Schools. Claudia Sowa is Associate
Professor, Educational Studies at the University of Virginia, and Carolyn
Callahan is Professor and Site Director of the National Research Center on
Gifted Education at the University of Virginia.

Copyright of Roeper Review is the property of Roeper Review and its content may
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copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print,
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