Ideologies: 'Isms and Politics

For a virtual handout comparing a variety of important ideologies, click here. 

• "Political ideology is a comprehensive set of beliefs about the political world—about desirable political goals and the best ways to achieve those goals."
• The ideology can describe what is or it can envision what ought to be.
• Ideology can refer to the beliefs of one person (liberal/conservative) or one million (Communists). As such there may be varieties of interpretations.  Which was correct Communism, the Chinese, the Soviet, or neither?
• It is usually assumed that a political ideology displays high coherence, complexity, and salience, but it may be low on any of these dimensions.
• The label “political ideology” is usually applied to one of a few comprehensive and widely held sets of beliefs.  Most of these are 'isms.  However, any relatively complete bundle of political beliefs could be termed an ideology.
• Ideologies have their own internal logic, and each ideology is based on assumptions and value judgments about:
•     the individual and human nature (is man good, bad, can he share?  Is he emotional or rational?  Violent or non-violent?),
•     the proper relationship between the individual and society (is the highest value individual freedom or is the collective good paramount?), and
•     the desirability of establishing certain kinds of equality among individuals (legal, political, socio-economic).

Let’s take a look at some 'Isms:

Fascism

Mussolini and Hitler (1940), Wikipedia

• Very influential ideology in the 20^th century: basis for Mussolini’s government in Italy (1922-1943), and Hitler's Nazism in Germany (1932-1945).  But not just those two:  fascism also appealed to leaders in the developing world: Chiang Kai-shek in China and Sukarno in Indonesia.
• Essence of fascism is the fundamental importance on the unity and harmony of government and society. Fascism is defined particularly by its opposition to forces the might weaken that collective unity. 
• In particular, fascism is anti-socialist (it opposed radical egalitarianism, the idea that there should be continuous struggle in society and that there should be seizure of private property by the state).
• And it is anti-democratic, proudly so.  Competitive politics are seen as destructive and destabilizing.
• In fascism, society and government should be organized into an organic whole with all groups coordinating their actions, social and economic activities to achieve the good of the whole.
• Fascism further assumes that the top leader is the embodiment of the national will and that all should obey the will of the leader. "Heil Hitler" ("Hail to Hitler").
• The ideology in the Nazi variant and European Far Right versions is usually associated with beliefs about the racial superiority of the nation.  Some within the country may be scapegoated and/or persecuted.
• It is easy to sit here in Wilmington in the 21st century and look at fascism as a discredited ideology of the past, but that is not the case.  There are continuous reappearances of groups with fascist leanings: Far right in Europe discussed earlier in the course: Austria, Switzerland, Netherlands, France, Germany.  In times of national hardship, especially, fascist solutions can appear to provide easy answers to complex problems. Why are we economically behind? "Because the Jewish people are engaged in a conspiracy against the nation."  Why can I not find a job?  "Because our government’s permissive immigration policy has allowed Muslims from North Africa to swamp us and take our jobs and turn our country into a crime-ridden hellhole like the one from which the immigrants came."  When we talked about the National Front in France: anti-immigrant, law and order. 
• In addition, we look now at fascism from the time of democracy’s victory, but in the earlier twentieth century, this was not the case.  Germany under Hitler long not recognized as a threat because Hitler was lauded as a leader who was picking Germany up by its boot straps, implementing law and order.  Considered an alternative governing system.

Socialism

• First common mistake is that socialism=Marxism, and that is not the case.
• Socialism—the most important goal is to provide high-quality, relatively equal conditions of life for everyone, with an active state assisting in the achievement of this goal  (different from Marxism, as we'll discuss shortly).
• Socialism developed during the nineteenth century as industrialization was proceeding.  Many were impoverished and exploited (think of a Charles Dickens novel or Sinclair Lewis’ The Jungle).  Socialism evolved as a distinctive ideology among those concerned that the plight of these individuals would not be addressed by existing ideologies (classical liberalism and conservatism—below), neither particularly concerned about these groups at the bottom of the scale, and in fact, making up a majority of the population.
• Individual: For socialists, individuals are not innately selfish or aggressive.  If anything, humans are caring and social by nature.  To a large extent individuals’ attributes are determined by their environment.  Consequently, it is important to create an environment that encourages individuals to place the highest value on cooperation and sharing and to believe that the most important goal for each individual is to increase the collective good of all.
• Individual and society.  While individual rights and freedoms are valued, the most important value is identified as the good of the society as a whole. Thus the individual’s interests must be subordinated to, or at least coordinated with, the overall interests and needs of everyone else.  All groups must encourage attitudes of cooperation and service to the common good.
• The government has a crucial role through education and civic training and through policies that provide every individual with good material living conditions and security.  Thus government must take an expansive role, ensuring that every citizen has access to quality education, shelter, health care, jobs, and financial security.
• Equality.  Disparities cause misery, alienation, and pervasive conflict in society.  Thus the ideology of socialism centers in a deep commitment to use the power and policies of the state to increase the material as well as the social and political equality of its members.  Such equality is believed to transform people into fulfilled, happy citizens who willingly contribute to the common good.

Marxism

Marx, Wikipedia

(As variant of socialism, above)

• Starts from the same place as socialism.  Nature of individual and commitment to equality.
• But a far more complex and “scientific” system.
• History progressing in a pattern.  Important to understand the mechanisms of change.
• To Marx, how does history progress?  For Marx, all history is a history of class struggle. Interspersed in history are a series of revolutions, broadening political and economic power, but made in the name of all the people, actually serving a certain group. (Marx: MCP “All previous historical movements were movements of minorities, or in the interest of minorities. The proletarian movement is the self-conscious, independent movement of the immense majority, in the interest of the immense majority.”)

·         Where does the nature of the political structure come from?  Economic structure underpins the political structure.  Politics, culture, even morality, ideas all spring forth from economic structure (they are superstructure) and the relations of production (who has capital—things to invest, money, land and those who don’t—have to sell their labor for wages). 

·         What are the classes to which Marx is referring? 

·         Bourgeois (control capital) (small traders will sink into proletariat because capital not sufficient for modern scale of industry).  Some bourgeois will break away as struggle reaches climax and align themselves with the workers' movement.  Most bourgeois lazy, do not work, and do not produce.

·         Proletariat only has labor to sell.  A “class of laborers, who live only so long as they find work, and who find work only so long as their labor increases capital.  These laborers, who must sell themselves piecemeal, are a commodity, like every other article of commerce, and are consequently exposed to all the vicissitudes of competition, to all the fluctuations of the market.”   Elsewhere: “He becomes an appendage of the machine, and it is only the most simple, most monotonous, and most easily acquired knack, that is required of him.”

Discuss the Communist Manifesto:

• What does Marx think of capitalism?

• Did Marx want to abolish all private property?

• What does he think of the bourgeoisie in the industrializing nations?

• How will the revolution occur?

• What is the state?

• What will happen to the state under Communism?

• Why didn't things happen as Marx had predicted?

• Anything Marx was right about?

·         What does Marx think of capitalism?  It is a fearsome thing, swallowing up all before it.  “It compels all nations, on pain of extinction, to adopt the bourgeois mode of production; it compels them to introduce what it calls civilization into their midst, i.e., to become bourgeois themselves. In one word, it creates a world after its own image.”

·  Or elsewhere: “The bourgeoisie, during its rule of scarce one hundred years, has created more massive and more colossal productive forces than have all preceding generations together.  Subjection of nature's forces to man, machinery, application of chemistry to industry and agriculture, steam navigation, railways, electric telegraphs, clearing of whole continents for cultivation, canalization or rivers, whole populations conjured out of the ground — what earlier century had even a presentiment that such productive forces slumbered in the lap of social labor?”

·         Capitalism a necessary stage, enormously productive, creation of wealth, globalization reduces the power of the nation state.  “National one-sidedness and narrow-mindedness become more and more impossible, and from the numerous national and local literatures, there arises a world literature.”  This globalization a necessary progression in the development of cross-national proletarian consciousness, revolutionary movements.

·         Creates conditions for its own destruction: “like the sorcerer who is no longer able to control the powers of the nether world whom he has called up by his spells.”  Referring to crises, over-production.

·         Bourgeois democracy that Marx was observing.  Did he view that as true democracy?  Why not?  Myth of bourgeois democracy is that it is not democracy, just partial democracy.  Think about the time that Marx is writing.  Most countries the franchise is very limited.  Ideals of bourgeois democracy hide reality of an exploitative system built on capitalism, exploitation of the workers, who have no capital, have to sell their labor for wages.  In England, observing the most advanced industrial country in the world.  Saw the suffering of the people, hoped to understand why that suffering was occurring and to develop a program for ending it.  Communist Manifesto: “The modern bourgeois society that has sprouted from the ruins of feudal society has not done away with class antagonisms. It has but established new classes, new conditions of oppression, new forms of struggle in place of the old ones.”  Elsewhere: “the bourgeoisie has at last, since the establishment of Modern Industry and of the world market, conquered for itself, in the modern representative state, exclusive political sway.”

·         Bourgeois democracy bad, why else?  Reduces everything to cash value, specialization of labor dehumanizing.  In Communism, man will be able "to hunt in the morning, fish in the afternoon, rear cattle in the evening, criticise after dinner, just as I have a mind, without ever becoming hunter, fisherman, herdsman or critic." (Marx, "The German Ideology.")

·         Did Marx wish to abolish all private property?  No, only bourgeois private property. Other types (small artisan, small peasant, etc) preceded the development of the bourgeoisie and are not dependent on exploiting others.  Already abolished for nine-tenths of the population.  Paid only enough to survive and breed more workers, no accumulation.

·         How will the revolution occur?  For Marx, the next revolution will be led by the working class and it will be global (it will start in the most advanced countries), but nations unimportant—just another way for bourgeois and reactionaries to divide workers of the world from one another.  In Marx’s thought, history is an inexorable progression—an iron law. 

·         This will happen.  Capitalism will cause the socio-economic-and political conditions which precipitate revolution and transition to socialism.   “But with the development of industry, the proletariat not only increases in number; it becomes concentrated in greater masses, its strength grows, and it feels that strength more.”  Development of unions, win some victories, riots break out occasionally.   Modern communications help them to spread message to other workers, grow stronger (Ten-Hours bill in Britain). 

·         How will one class overthrow its oppressors?  Progress from one stage to another will be violent because the power-holding class will attempt to maintain its control.

·         What is the state?  Famous line from Marx: “The executive of the modern state is but a committee for managing the common affairs of the whole bourgeoisie.”   State is political power used to oppress one class by another. 

      What will happen to the state under Communism?  As progress, state will be used to manage the whole resources of the economy.  “To centralize all instruments of production in the hands of the state, i.e., of the proletariat organized as the ruling class; and to increase the total productive forces as rapidly as possible.” With state control (under control of proletariat) no longer oppression, no longer need for “political power.” Under Communism, state will eventually wither away.  After socialist goals achieved, classes disappear, no longer a need.

·         Who are the Communists?  The Communists are a party.  “The Communists are distinguished from the other working-class parties by this only:   (1) In the national struggles of the proletarians of the different countries, they point out and bring to the front the common interests of the entire proletariat, independently of all nationality. (2) In the various stages of development which the struggle of the working class against the bourgeoisie has to pass through, they always and everywhere represent the interests of the movement as a whole.”  Most progressive of the working class parties.

What mistakes did Marx make?  Why didn’t things happen just like he said?

·         Lenin recognized that the workers would not overthrow the system by themselves. They could be divided by petty concessions ("trade union consciousness"). Needed a vanguard party to lead the revolution.

·         Assumption of human nature?

·         Historical progression as iron law

·         State did not wither away, needed to enforce coercion required to keep large Communist dictatorships in power.

·         Did not foresee the embourgeoisement of the workers, creation of "middle class" society.

·        Soviet joke: "They pretend to pay us, we pretend to work."  MPC: “It has been objected that upon the abolition of private property, all work will cease, and universal laziness will overtake us.”

·         Didn’t realize that putting economic resources in the hands of the state would create a new class, lording it over others by control of resources, access.

Anything Marx was right about?

·         Industrial labor, repetitive tasks are dehumanizing

·         Even if Marxism may be a decaying ideology, Marxist analysis still influential, particularly in academic circles.  One of the aspects that is still influential is the idea that politics, culture, morality, everything arises from the economic system. That there is a structure and a superstructure.  Marxist Feminist analysts would say, for example, that because men have always controlled economic and political power, history is written as if they were the only actors of importance. What is important in history? The acts of great men doing great things.  Don’t see a book on the evolution of child care in the Middle Ages, because society doesn’t consider that, traditionally a women’s role, to be important.  What comes to be considered important a direct result of existing economic and political power relations.

Continental Conservatism

• Conservatism and Liberalism are difficult because the terms liberal and conservative are used in different ways in some different contexts.
• The foundation of conservatism is to prevent or slow the transition away from a society based on traditional values and social hierarchies.  So, the idea of conservatism is to prevent change or at least slow it down. 
• Individual.  Individuals are unequal in intelligence, skills, and in status.  Some individuals are superior to others, and it is clearly preferable that those from the superior groups should be in a position of power in society and in government.
• Individual and society.  Individuals have a basic need for order and stability in society.  These individuals belong to different groups, which are unequal in power, status, and material possessions.  Social harmony is maintained when these various groups work cooperatively together.  Traditional values and ethics provide the guidelines for group cooperation and individual behavior. And it is the role of institutions like the family and the church as well as government, to communicate and enforce these values.  Individual freedom is valued, but only within a framework of mutual responsibility.  Must behave in a way consistent with traditional values. 
• Superior groups should protect the weak from severe hardships, a responsibility the French call noblesse oblige. Tradition and religion rather than reason should guide society.
• Egalitarianism—hierarchy the natural state of things. Foolish and destructive to seek to impose egalitarianism.  Would cause disorder and trample on individual freedoms.  Market case—would destroy proper incentives to be a productive member of society.

Does this jive entirely with current use of the term conservative in the United States?  Current conservatism heavily influenced by classical liberalism

Classical Liberalism

• The ideology of liberalism places the highest value on individual freedom and posits that the role of government should be quite limited. 
• It is this element which influences contemporary conservatism in the US, limited government (US conservative opposition to the bailout package 2009).  But conservatism willing to use the government to maintain traditions and values.  Not free to do whatever you please, even among consenting adults.  Whereas a true, consistent classical liberal would allow consenting adults to do what they please, absent harm to anyone else.
• Why is the term liberal confusing?  Well, liberals could refer to classical liberals (who put the stress on individual freedom) or it could refer to US liberals-discuss more in a moment. 
• Classical liberals, like many of the US' founding fathers, believe that men are imbued with certain natural rights: to life, liberty, and property.  Moreover, each individual is rational and has the ability to use his reason to determine sensible rules that shape how she should live.  Essentially, every individual is capable of deciding rationally how to pursue his own needs and to avoid harming others.  Notice two important contrasts with conservatism: 1) each person is rational and the responsibility falls to the individual using reason to determine what is in his best interest.  2) there is no higher value than the freedom of the individual to pursue his national rights.
• Classical liberals celebrate laissez-faire economy with little government regulation and small government.
• Individuals should be equal before the law, but the government should not set out on a project to create material equality. Individuals will pursue their interests, and different outcomes will result.
• Classical liberals include: John Locke, Adam Smith, and Milton Friedman.
• US liberals (American liberals), on the other hand, have very different sets of beliefs. They believe that equality is the desired goal and that the government should be a tool for achieving it.  The confusion stems in part from FDR’s presidency (1933-45).  Faced with the Great Depression, Roosevelt argued for a “New Deal” in which the central government had a clear duty and responsibility to assist actively in economic recovery and social action.  While not proposing the expansive government role in the economy and egalitarianism of socialism, he did insist that government must be very active in solving economic and social problems.  Among other things, government must actively regulate business, create jobs, and distribute extensive welfare services to citizens, including cash payments and increased provision of education, housing, health care, and so on.  To avoid the politically negative label of “socialism,” Roosevelt terms himself and his policies “liberal,” contrasting them to the conservative policies asserted by his opponents (which were actually classic liberalism, limited government, laissez-faire economics, and individual freedom).  Roosevelt’s terminology caught on in the US.

So, we have a couple of streams here:

• Fascism
• Socialism
• Continental conservatism
• Contemporary US conservatism
• Classical liberalism
• Contemporary US liberalism ("progressivism")

Issue comes up. How would people from the various ideological streams propose to handle it?

• Bailout of the US auto industry
• Gay marriage
• Overpopulation
• Climate change
• Immigration
• Energy
• Democracy promotion
• School vouchers
• World trade

Questions:

• Was the last US presidential election ideological?
• Are US politics generally ideological?
• Is ideology a good or a bad thing?

Conclusion:

Hopefully, this class has brought together things we've learned in many different class sessions: on Marxism and the Russian Revolution, on Mao Zedong's Communism but also on European socialism (France's economy) and the Conservative Party (Tories) in the United Kingdom.

Perhaps you found an ideology whose assumptions and goals you agree with, perhaps not.

Updated: October 18, 2011.

Author: Paige Johnson Tan, tanp@Uncw.edu

Return to Dr. Tan's homepage: http://people.uncw.edu/tanp/