Progressive Era
1870’s-1920’s

Political Economy

• Urbanization-increased from 9,902,000 in 1870 to 54,158,000 in 1920. 1870  - 26% of population lived in cities, by 1920 50%.  Cities characterized by poverty, inadequate housing, bad sanitation, crime, conflict between employers and workers, and cultural tensions - sharp contrast with the American Dream.
• Immigration

a.)  Large increase in numbers
b.)  Change in countries.  Old immigrants - U.K., Scandinavia, & Germany.  New immigrants - Italy, Russia, Bulgaria, and Hungary.
c.)  Continued tensions between old & new.
d.)  Conflict between free entry and restricting immigration. Increased racism based on racial inferiority of immigrants.  With the publication of Charles Darwin's Origin of Species in 1859, bigots in the U.S. had created “scientific" argument that some racial groups were more evolved than others.  Literacy tests used to restrict immigration; Ku Klux Klan grew to over 4 million - In 1920's immigration quotas severely cut.

• Industrialization- 1870 50% employed in agriculture, 25% in 1920.

a.)  Taylorization:  Scientific management - breaking down complex tasks into simpler tasks, requiring little skill.  Increase production, greater control over workers.  Brought craftsmen under the control of the factory system.
Increased profits but denied individuality, creativity and intelligence.  Control led to worker resistance to capitalism - militant unionism, socialism, and populism.

Socialists supported greater equality for the working class, poor, equal rights for women and African Americans.
Populism:  Movement of rural agricultural workers opposed to big business and industry.

b.)  Progressivism:  Government regulations to control business:  wages for women, child labor, safety regulations.  However, it did not alter the unequal power balance.  Legislation served to stabilize economy (strikes, bankruptcy) and protected the interests of capital.

New Liberal Ideology:

1.)  Reason:  Expert knowledge & scientific method valued.
2.)  Progress:  through scientific knowledge and thinking.
3.)  Freedom:  Government intervention could protect the freedoms of the least powerful.

Progressive Education:

1.)  Rejected the classical curriculum in favor of child centered; needs & interests of the learner.
2.)  Learn by doing rather than rote.
3.)  Education should be responsive to social context.
4)   Primary aim of school is to help solve social problems.

2 Views of Progressivism:  Democratic and Social Efficiency.
1.  Democratic view:  school life should be organized like a democratic community (John Dewey).  Democracy requires educated citizens skilled in democratic process. (Only available to the children of the privileged.)
2.  Social efficiency:  Progress based on the application of scientific knowledge and expertise (Charles Eliot).
Defined 4 new goals for the schools

• social stability
• employable skills
• equal educational opportunities
• meritocracy

Labor market requires different skills - hence schools require a differentiated curriculum - academic and vocational

Doctrines of Social Efficiency ran counter to traditional academic thrust of high school.
The expansion of schooling - a key solution to stability and an educated work force.

1900's school compulsory to 8th Grade.
Secondary school enrollment 7% in 1890, 30% by 1920 the curriculum included bookkeeping, typing, agriculture and home economic.  Females directed into the female vocations.
All students would have equal opportunity to receive the education deemed appropriate to their abilities.  The introduction of I.Q. tests (scientific methods) supported the validity of the system.