The example is being ignored as a valuable part of rhetoric by theorists of this day and age. The reason, because it is not governed by rules. When applying inductive or deductive reasoning to an argument, there are rules and steps that apply to the analyzation of the argument. On the other hand, what does one do when they can’t apply inductive reasoning or deuctive reasoning to the argument?
Aristotle described an example as, “proof common to all brunches of rhetori” (Consigny 121). Scott Consigny illustrates different times when examples are used in an argument. The first is in some kinds of “aesthetic judgements” are being made (122). What rules can one use to determine what makes a painting beautiful. The judge must base it on previous experience, but how can he exlain the exact way or “rule” by which he judged? The second example Cosigny provides for us is that of a judge in the court system. He is suppose to determine cases based on previous judgements. He must take a new situation, and see if the old situation is a good “example” of the new one (122).
According to Consigny, Aristoltle claims that an example is a logical proof, for the simple fact that it is, “a reasoning from ‘part to part’ without the intervention of or reliance on a ‘whole’” (Consigny 123). Aristolte also gives us three techniques when using an example as an argument. The first is the use of an “historical example”, which is based on “factual material” (124). The second is the use of the “parabole”. The parabole is “based on hypothetical data”. This type of example was often used by Socrates in his arguments (124). The last technique he gives us is the use of “logos”. Logos is “a fable...involves narration of a story, often about animals, to guide future action (124).There aren’t any rules to tell one which of the techniques are the best to used for each situation.
When one encounters a deliberative rhetoric, where there is some type of advise about the future, Aristotle specifies that one should use the first technique mentioned, historical. “Examples are most suitable for deliberative speakers, for it is by examination of the past that we divine and judge the future” (Consigny 126). When one enters into a situation that resembles the past, as is advising about the future, one can look back and generate ideas about the new situation.
Analogies have been regarded as a type of inductive reasoning, according to Mary Hesse. “In argument by analogy, relying on certain similiarities or parallels between the two situations, one generalizes from the first instance to a “rule”, and then applies it to the second case” (128). The problem with analogies is that one is reasoning from “whole to whole”, intead of “part to part”. You are taking the generalization of an entire whole and basing that same generalization on another whole, when some of it’s parts may be different. This is one of the reasons examples are more well suited. When one designs an example for a situation, it is done from part to part. Each part of the example will try to correspond with the each part of the situation.
Rules seem to be the reason why examples haven’t been considered logical proofs. How can one justify an example when it is based on what the speaker thinks of at the time. We are not justifying something based on any rules or inductive and deductive reasoning, “but rather the ‘common behavior of mankind’” (Consigny130). When the audience follows what the speaker is giving as an example, we will be following his own reasoning. This is how the example becomes justified. “We do not accept the example because it is justified, but rather it is justified because we accept it” (131).
The example is not considered a valid logical argument, but it seems that it should be. It doesn’t reason from whole to whole, but instead from part to part. It is also only acceted if the audience thinks that the example is justifiable. This let’s the audience reason more with the speaker. Examples lead to new ways of thinking about something and can also be apllied to situations where no rules can be ascertained. Examples should be reconsidered as a valid form of logical proof.
April Gary ANG8202@uncwil.edu