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APA Research Style Crib Sheet
A
Research Style Crib Sheet
by Russ Dewey Georgia Southern University
[This page is a summary of rules for using APA style. The version you=
are
reading was revised 10/10/96, edited and revised again on September 5,
2000 with Bill Scott of the College of
Wooster, and updated in January 2003 by Doc
Scribe. I have made every effort to keep this document accurate, but
readers have occasionally pointed out errors and inconsistencies which requ=
ired
correction. I am grateful to them and invite additional feedback. This docu=
ment
may be reproduced freely if this paragraph is included. --Russ Dewey, rdewey@gasou.edu]
APA
style =
is the
style of writing used by journals published by the American Psychological
Association (APA). The style is documented in the APA Publication Manual=
(5th ed., 2001). The APA Manual began as an article published in =
Psychological
Bulletin in 1929. That article reported results of a 1928 meeting of
representatives from anthropological and psychological journals, "to
discuss the form of journal manuscripts and to write instructions for their
preparation" (APA, 2001, p. xix). By 1952 the guidelines were issued a=
s a
separate document called the Publication Manual. Today the manual is=
in
its fifth edition, and the APA format described in it is a widely
recognized standard for scientific writing in psychology and education.
Some of the more commonly used rules and reference formats from the manu=
al
are listed here. However, this web page is no substitute for the 440 page A=
PA Manual
itself, which should be purchased by any serious psychology student in the
U.S., or by students in other countries who are writing for a journal which
uses APA format. The APA Manual can be found in almost any college
bookstore, as well as in many large, general-purpose bookstores, in the
reference and style guide section. You may check the current price and deli=
very
of the APA Manual by clicking on this link to amazon.com.
The spiral bound edition is especially handy when formatting research paper=
s.
The APA Manual draws a distinction between "final manuscript=
s"
such as class papers, theses, and dissertations, and "copy
manuscripts" to be submitted for review and publication. The APA Cr=
ib
Sheet follows the instructions given in chapter six for "Material
Other Than Journal Articles" (APA, 2001, pp. 321-330). Final manuscrip=
ts
differ from copy manuscripts in these ways:
Spacing. "Double-spacing is required throughout
most of the manuscript. When single-spacing would improve readability,
however, it is usually encouraged. Single spacing can be used for table
titles and headings, figure captions, references (but double-spacing is
required between references), footnotes, and long quotations" (AP=
A,
2001, p. 326).
Figures, tables, and footnotes. "In a manuscri=
pt
submitted for publication, figures, tables, and footnotes are placed at
the end of the manuscript; in theses and dissertations, such material =
is
frequently incorporated at the appropriate point in text as a convenie=
nce
to readers" (APA, 2001, p. 325).
The most notable additions and changes to fifth
edition of the APA Manual (2001) include:
Electronic sources require new formats in reference=
s.
The formats previously featured on the APA Web site have been supersed=
ed.
Several formats are included in the Crib Sheet.
Italics or underline? "Use the functions of yo=
ur
word-processing program to create italic, bold, or other special fonts=
or
styles following the style guidelines specified in this Publication
Manual" (APA, 2001, p. 286). However, underlining in place of
italics is still acceptable when using a typewriter (see APA, 2001, p.
100). Always be consistent!
Hanging indents. "APA publishes references in =
a hanging
indent format. . . . If a hanging indent is difficult to accomplish
with your word-processing program, it is permissible to indent your
references with paragraph indents" (APA, 2001, p. 299).
Following
is a summary of rules and reference examples in the APA style
manual. The manual itself contains all this information and more, organized=
and
worded differently, indexed and illustrated. If in doubt about a specific r=
ule
or example, consult the manual itself.
Avoid abbreviations (acronyms) except for long, fam=
iliar
terms (MMPI).
Explain what an abbreviation means the first time it
occurs: American Psychological Association (APA).
If an abbreviation is commonly used as a word, it d=
oes
not require explanation (IQ, LSD, REM, ESP).
Do not use the old abbreviations for subject,
experimenter, and observer (S, E, O).
The following abbreviations should NOT be used outs=
ide
parenthetical comments:
cf. [use compare<=
/b>]
e.g. [use for exam=
ple]
etc. [use and so f=
orth]
i.e. [use that is<=
/b>]
viz. [use namely]
vs. [use versus]
Use periods when making an abbreviation within a
reference (Vol. 3, p. 6, 2nd ed.)
Do not use periods within degree titles and
organization titles (PhD, APA).
Do not use periods within measurements (lb, ft, s)
except inches (in.).
Use s for second, m for meter.
To form plurals of abbreviations, add s alone, with=
out
apostrophe (PhDs, IQs, vols., Eds).
In using standard abbreviations for measurements, l=
ike
m for meter, do not add an s to make it plural (100 seconds is 100 s);=
when
referring to several pages in a reference or citation, use the
abbreviation pp. (with a period after it and a space after the period)=
.
Do not use the abbreviation "pp." for
magazine or journal citations; just give the numbers themselves. Do use
"pp." for citations of encyclopedia entries, multi-page
newspaper articles, chapters or articles in edited books. <=
/span>
Use two-letter postal codes for U.S. state names (G=
A).
In
general, avoid anything that causes offense. The style manual makes the
following suggestions:
DO
NOT use . . .
&=
nbsp; &nbs=
p;
when
you can use . . .
ethnic
labels (for example, Hispanic)
geographical
labels (Mexican Americans)
"men"
(referring to all adults) &nbs=
p;
"men
and women"
"homosexuals"
&=
nbsp;
"gay
men and lesbians"
"depressives"
&=
nbsp;
"people
with depression"
Correct
use of the terms "gender" and "sex"
The
term "gender" refers to culture and should be used when referring=
to
men and women as social groups, as in this example from the Publication
Manual: "sexual orientation rather than gender accounted for most =
of
the variance in the results; most gay men and lesbians were for it, most
heterosexual men and women were against it" (APA, 2001, p. 63). <=
/o:p>
The term "sex" refers to biology and should be used when
biological distinctions are emphasized, for example, "sex differences =
in
hormone production."
Avoid gender stereotypes. For example, the manual suggests replacing
"An American boy's infatuation with football" with "An Ameri=
can
child's infatuation with football" (see APA, 2001, p. 66).
Sensitivity to
labels
Be
sensitive to labels. A person in a clinical study should be called a
"patient," not a "case." Avoid equating people with the=
ir
conditions, for example, do not say "schizophrenics," say
"people diagnosed with schizophrenia." Use the term "sexual
orientation," not "sexual preference." The phrase "gay =
men
and lesbians" is currently preferred to the term "homosexuals.&qu=
ot;
To refer to all people who are not heterosexual, the manual suggests
"lesbians, gay men, and bisexual women and men" (APA, 2001, p. 67=
).
In racial references, the manual simply recommends that we respect curre=
nt
usage. Currently both the terms "Black" and "African
American" are widely accepted, while "Negro" and
"Afro-American" are not. These things change, so use common sense=
.
Capitalize Black and White when the words are used as prop=
er
nouns to refer to social groups. Do not use color words for other ethnic
groups. The manual specifies that hyphens should not be used in multiword n=
ames
such as Asian American or African American.
Labels can be tricky, and the manual has a lot to say about them. For
example, "American Indian" and "Native American" are bo=
th
acceptable usages, but the manual notes that there are nearly 450 Native
American groups, including Hawaiians and Samoans, so specific group names a=
re
far more informative.
The terms Hispanic, Latino, and Chicano are preferred by
different groups. The safest procedure is use geographical references. Just=
say
"Cuban American" if referring to people from Cuba.
The term Asian American is preferable to Oriental, and aga=
in
the manual recommends being specific about country of origin, when this is
known (for example, Chinese or Vietnamese). People from northern Canada,
Alaska, eastern Siberia, and Greenland often (but not always!) prefer In=
uk
(singular) and Inuit (plural) to "Eskimo." But some Alaska
natives are non-Inuit people who prefer to be called Eskimo. This type of
difficulty is avoided by using geographical references. For example, in pla=
ce
of "Eskimo" or "Inuit" one could use "people from
northern Canada, Alaska, eastern Siberia, and Greenland."
In general, call people what they want to be called, and do not contrast=
one
group of people with another group called "normal" people. Write
"we compared people with autism to people without autism" not
"we contrasted autistics to normals." Do not use pejorative terms
like "stroke victim" or "stroke sufferers." Use a more
neutral terminology such as "people who have had a stroke." Avoid=
the
terms "challenged" and "special" unless the population
referred to prefers this terminology (for example, Special Olympics). As a
rule, use the phrase "people with _______" (for example, "pe=
ople
with AIDS," not "AIDS sufferers").
In referring to age, be specific about age ranges; avoid open-ended
definitions like "under 16" or "over 65." Avoid the ter=
m elderly.
Older person is preferred. Boy and Girl are acceptable=
referring
to high school and and younger. For persons 18 and older use men and=
women.
Capitalize formal names of tests (Stroop Color-Word
Interference Test).
Capitalize major words and all other words of four
letters or more, in headings, titles, and subtitles outside reference
lists, for example, "A Study of No-Win Strategies."
Capitalize names of conditions, groups, effects, and
variables only when definite and specific. (Group A was the control gr=
oup;
an Age x Weight interaction showed lower weight with age.) =
Capitalize the first word after a comma or colon if,
and only if, it begins a complete sentence. For example, "This is=
a
complete sentence, so it is capitalized." As a counter example,
"no capitalization here."
Capitalize specific course and department titles (G=
SU
Department of Psychology, Psych 150).
Do not capitalize generic names of tests (Stroop co=
lor
test). "Stroop" is a name, so it remains capitalized. <=
/o:p>
Capitalize nouns before numbers, but not before
variables (Trial 2, trial x).
Do not capitalize names of laws, theories, and
hypotheses (the law of effect).
Do not capitalize when referring to generalities (a=
ny
department, any introductory course).
Do not use commas to separate parts of measurement =
(9
lbs 5 oz). Use the metric system, as a rule.
Use commas before "and" in lists, for
example, height, width, and depth.
Use commas between groups of three digits, for exam=
ple,
1,453.
Use commas to set off a reference in a parenthetical
comment (Patrick, 1993).
Use commas for seriation within a paragraph or
sentence. For example, "three choices are (a) true, (b) false, and
(c) don't know." Use semicolons for seriation if there are commas
within the items. For example, (a) here, in the middle of the item, th=
ere
are commas; (b) here there are not; (c) so we use semicolons throughou=
t.
Use commas in exact dates, for example, April 18, 1=
992
(but not in April 1992).
Do not hyphenate -ly and superlative words (=
widely
used test, best informed students).
Do not hyphenate common prefixes (posttest, prewar,
multiphase, nonsignificant) unless needed for clarity (pre-existing). =
Do not hyphenate foreign, letter, numeral terms (a
priori hypothesis, Type A behavior) when the meaning is clear without =
it
(least squares solution, heart rate scores).
Do not hyphenate if a noun comes first (a therapy w=
as
client centered, results of t tests).
Hyphenate adjectival phrases (role-playing techniqu=
e,
high-anxiety group, two-way analysis).
Hyphenate compound adjectives preceding nouns
(client-centered therapy, t-test scores) unless the compound
adjective involves a superlative (best written paper).
Hyphenate if the base is an abbreviation or compoun=
ded
(pre-UCS, non-college bound).
Hyphenate if the base word is capitalized or a numb=
er
(pre-Freudian, post-1960).
Hyphenate if the words could be misunderstood witho=
ut a
hyphen (re-pair, un-ionized, co-worker).
If in doubt, consult a recently published dictionar=
y.
Standards change. For example, "data base" is now
"database," and "life-style" is now
"lifestyle."
Do not italicize or underline common foreign
abbreviations (vice versa, et al., a priori).
Do not italicize or underline for mere emphasis.
Italicize or underline the titles of books and
articles, species names, introduction of new terms and labels (the fir=
st
time only), words and phrases used as linguistic examples, letters use=
d as
statistical symbols, and volume numbers in reference lists.
Do not use "and/or." Write things out. For
example, "Monday, Tuesday, or both" is preferable to
"Monday and/or Tuesday."
Do not use a colon or other punctuation after an
introduction which is not a complete sentence such as
this
one, or any other sentence in the body of text which flows into an extended
quote. The quote "picks up where the sentence leaves off" and
provides the punctuation.
Use a dash (rendered on typewriters and some word
processors as a double hyphen) when there is a sudden interruption like
this one--zoiks!--in the flow of a sentence. Overuse "weakens the
flow of the writing" (APA, 2001, p. 81).
Use parentheses to introduce an abbreviation, for
example, the galvanic skin response (GSR).
Use appendixes (appendices) as the plural of=
appendix.
Use datum as singular, data as plural. Use matrix=
as
singular, matrices as plural. Phenomenon is the singular
form of the plural phenomena. Use schema as singular, schemas
(not schemata) as plural.
When listing separate paragraphs in a series, use a
number and a period, not parentheses.
Spell out common fractions and common expressions
(one-half, Fourth of July).
Spell out large numbers beginning sentences (Thirty
days hath September . . .).
Spell out numbers which are inexact, or below 10 and
not grouped with numbers over 10 (one-tailed t test, eight item=
s,
nine pages, three-way interaction, five trials).
Use numerals for numbers 10 and above, or lower num=
bers
grouped with numbers 10 and above (for example, from 6 to 12 hours of
sleep).
To make plurals out of numbers, add s only, =
with
no apostrophe (the 1950s).
Treat ordinal numbers like cardinal numbers (the fi=
rst
item of the 75th trial . . .).
Use combinations of written and Arabic numerals for
back-to-back modifiers (five 4-point scales).
Use combinations of numerals and written numbers for
large sums (over 3 million people).
Use numerals for exact statistical references, scor=
es,
sample sizes, and sums (multiplied by 3, or 5% of the sample). Here is
another example: "We used 30 subjects, all two year olds, and they
spent an average of 1 hr 20 min per day crying.
Use metric abbreviations with figures (4 km) but not
when written out (many meters distant).
Use the percent symbol (%) only with figures (5%) n=
ot
with written numbers (five percent).
Use quotation marks for an odd or ironic usage the
first time but not thereafter, for example, "This is the
"good-outcome" variable, but as it turns out, the good-outco=
me variable
predicts trouble later on . . ."
Use quotation marks for article and chapter titles
cited in the text but not in the reference list. (In Smith's (1992)
article, "APA Style and Personal Computers," computers were
described as "here to stay" (p. 311).)
Extended quot=
ations
Add emphasis in a quotation with italics, immedi=
ately
followed by the words [italics added] in brackets.
Brackets are not necessary when changing the first
letter of a quotation to upper case.
For quotations over 40 words in length, indent and
single space the whole block (double space in papers for review or
publication). Indent five more spaces (one-half inch, 1.25 cm) if there
are paragraphs within the long quotation after the first. Always provi=
de
author, year, and page citation.
Expand or clarify words or meanings in a quotation =
by
placing the added material in quotes. For example, "They [the Iri=
sh
Republican Army] initiated a cease-fire."
Reproduce a quote exactly. If there are errors,
introduce the word sic italicized and bracketed--for exammple [=
sic]--immediately
after the error to indicate it was part of the original source. <=
/o:p>
Use three dots with a space before, between, and af=
ter
each (ellipsis points) when omitting material, four if the omitted
material includes the end of a sentence (with no space before the firs=
t).
Do not use dots at the beginning or end of a quotation unless it is
important to indicate the quotation begins or ends in midsentence.
Do NOT use qu=
otes
to . . .
. . . cite a linguistic example; instead, underline=
or
italicize the term (the verb gather).
. . . hedge, cast doubt, or apologize (he was
"cured"). Leave off the quotes.
. . . identify endpoints on a scale; underline or
italicize instead (poor to excellent).
. . . introduce a key term (the neoquasipsychoan=
alytic
theory).
The
APA Manual
notes that "the size of the type should be one of the standard typewri=
ter
sizes (pica or elite) or, if produced from a word processing program, 12
points" (2001, p. 285). The body of the paper should be in a serif
typeface (like Courier or Times Roman) with lettering on figures in a sans
serif typeface (such as Helvetica or Arial).
Level A Headings are
Centered and Set in Heading Caps
Level B: Flush with Left Margin, Italicized, Set in Heading Caps=
Level C headings: Indented, it=
alicized,
sentence caps, end with a period. These headings are sometimes
referred to as paragraph or run-in headings. Although they =
end
with a period (or other punctuation) they need not be complete sentences =
or
grammatically correct.
Use headings in the order presented. If you need just two levels, use Le=
vel
A and Level B headings. Level A and B headings do not end with punctuation
except to add emphasis with an exclamation point or question mark. Do not b=
egin
a paper with the heading Introduction. It is understood that all pap=
ers
begin with an introduction.
Abstracts are limited to 120 words (APA, 2001, p. 1=
3).
Double space the text, but single space with=
in
block quotes, references, and the abstract.
Footnotes are rarely used in APA papers, except for
author affiliation and contact information--the author note.
Hyphenation should not occur at the end of lines, o=
nly
between words when necessary.
Indent paragraphs, block quotes, and hanging indents
one-half inch (1.25 cm or five to seven spaces).
Justification should be set to "off" or
"left margin only" (the right margin should be uneven, a =
ragged
right margin).
Keyword emphasis requires the use of italics, but o=
nly
the first time a term is used. If the intent is to indicate odd or iro=
nic
usage, use quotation marks.
Margins should be at least 1" all around (about
2.5 cm).
Page numbers are required on every page: Number pag=
es
consecutively.
The page header summarizes the title in a few words.
The header and page number go inside the margin space, double spaced a=
bove
the text, next to the right margin.
Word processor features--such as bold and italic fo=
nts
and hanging indents--should be used as appropriate. =
Number
tables
consecutively as they appear in your text. Use only whole numbers, no 5a, 5=
b,
etc. See recent issues of the American Psychologist or other APA
journals for more complex table layouts. "Tables are efficient, enabli=
ng
the researcher to present a large amount of data in a small amount of
space" (APA, 2001, p. 147).
Place tables close to where they are first mentione=
d in
your text, but do not split a table across pages. (Tables in papers
submitted for review or publication are placed on separate pages at the
end of the paper.)
Label each table beginning with the table number
followed by a description of the contents.
Horizontal rules (lines) should be typed into table=
s;
do not draw them in by hand.
Each row and column must have a heading. Abbreviati=
ons
and symbols (e.g., "%" or "nos.") may be used.
Do not change the number of decimal places within a
column.
Do not change the units of measurement within a col=
umn.
"Use a zero before the decimal point when numb=
ers
are less than one" (APA, 2001, p. 128). Write "0.23" not
".23" unless the number is a statistic that cannot be
larger than one, for example a correlation r =3D .55, or a
probability p < .01.
Add notes to explain the table contents. These may =
be
general notes or footnotes. The latter are labeled "a, b, c,
etc."
Use asterisks to indicate statistical significance
explained in the probability level note at the bottom of the table.
"Assign a given alpha level the same number of asterisks from tab=
le
to table within your paper, such as *p < .05 and **p =
<
.01; the largest probability receives the fewest asterisks [the smaller
probability get more asterisks]" (APA, 2001, p. 170). =
You may both single space and double space within a
table to achieve clarity. Tables in papers submitted for review or
publication (only!) must be double spaced throughout.
Use
the author-date format
to cite references in text. For example: as Smith (1990) points out, a rece=
nt
study (Smith, 1990) shows. . . . Every source cited in your text--and
only those sources cited in your text--are referenced in the reference list=
.
For two-author citations, spell out both authors on=
all
occurrences.
For multiple-author citations (up to five authors) =
name
all authors the first time, then use et al., so the first time it is
Smith, Jones, Pearson and Sherwin (1990), but the second time it is Sm=
ith
et al., with a period after "al" but no underlining.
The first time an "et al." reference is u=
sed
in a paragraph, give the year, thereafter (if the citation is repeated=
in
the paragraph) omit the year.
For six or more authors, use et al. the first time =
and
give the full citation in references.
Include a page reference after the year, outside
quotes. For example: The author stated, "The effect disappeared
within minutes" (Lopez, 1993, p. 311), but she did not say which
effect; Lopez found that "the effect disappeared within minutes&q=
uot;
(p. 311). The sentence quoted is capitalized only if it follows a comm=
a,
and is a complete sentence not merged into the flow of the text. =
If two or more multiple-author references which sho=
rten
to the same "et al." form, making it ambiguous, give as many
author names as necessary to make them distinct, before et al. For
example: (Smith, Jones, et al., 1991) to distinguish it from (Smith, B=
urke,
et al., 1991).
Join names in a multiple-author citation with an=
d
(in text) or an ampersand (&) in reference lists and parenthetical
comments. For example: As Smith and Sarason (1990) point out, the same
argument was made by in an earlier study (Smith & Sarason, 1990). =
If a group is readily identified by its initials, s=
pell
it out only the first time. For example, "As reported in a govern=
ment
study (National Institute of Mental Health [NIMH], 1991), blah blah . =
. .
" and thereafter, "The previously cited study (NIMH, 1991) f=
ound
that . . .
If the author is unknown or unspecified, use the fi=
rst
few words of the reference list entry (usually the title), for example:
("Study Finds," 1992).
If citing multiple works by the same author at the =
same
time, arrange dates in order. In general, use letters after years to
distinguish multiple publications by the same author in the same year.=
For
example: Several studies (Johnson, 1988, 1990a, 1990b, 1995 in press-a,
1995 in press-b) showed the same thing.
For old works cite the translation or the original =
and
modern copyright dates if both are known, for example: (Aristotle, tra=
ns.
1931) or (James, 1890/1983).
Always give page numbers for quotations, for exampl=
e:
(Cheek & Buss, 1981, p. 332) or (Shimamura, 1989, chap. 3, p. 5). =
For e-mail and other "unrecoverable data"=
use
personal communication, for example: (V.-G. Nguyen, personal
communication, September 28, 1993). These do not appear in the referen=
ce
list.
For quoting electronic documents without page numbe=
rs,
cite paragraph numbers if given, indicated by the paragraph symbol or =
the
abbreviation para. in the citation (e.g., Smith, 2000, ¶ 17). If
there are no paragraph numbers, cite the nearest preceding section hea=
ding
and count paragraphs from there (e.g., Smith, 2000, Method section, pa=
ra.
4).
Your
text and the reference list must agree. "References cited in text must
appear in the reference list; conversely, each entry in the reference list =
must
be cited in text" (APA, 2001, p. 215). See the section on Reference
citations for citing references in text.
Abbreviating
within a reference
Here
are approved abbreviations for use in a reference list: <=
/p>
chap.=
for chapter
ed. for edition
rev. ed.<=
/b> for revised edi=
tion
2nd ed. for second edit=
ion
Ed. for Edited by <=
o:p>
(Eds.) for multiple ed=
itors
Trans. for Translated =
by
p. for page number=
, with
a space after the period
pp. for page numbers
(plural)
Vol.<=
span
style=3D'mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"'> for a specific =
Volume
vols.=
for a work with=
xx
volumes
No. for Number
Pt. for Part <=
/o:p>
Suppl. for Supplement,=
Tech. Rep. for Technical R=
eport
Use
the abbreviation "pp." for page numbers in encyclopedia entries,
multi-page newspaper articles, chapters or articles in edited books, but not
in journal or magazine article citations, where numbers alone should be used
(see examples of reference formats).
The
APA Publication Manual now instructs authors to use hanging indents for
references, and to use italics for titles. The hanging indent is
one-half inch (1.25 cm), just like paragraph indents. All titles in referen=
ces
are set in sentence caps, but titles quoted in the text are set in heading
caps. No quotation marks are used around titles of articles in references, =
but
quotes are used when citing article titles in the text. The APA Publicat=
ion
Manual (2001) contains 95 examples of different reference types (pp.
240-281). Here are a few examples of the most commonly used formats.
Anonymous or
unknown author (common in newspapers):
Caffeine linked to mental illness. (1991, July 13). New York Times=
,
pp. B13, B15.
Citation: ("Caffeine Linked," 1991). Use heading caps when cit=
ing
titles in text citations.
Books
(Group author, 3ñ5 authors, reprint/translation, edition other than
first):
American Psychiatric Association. (1990). Diagnostic and statistic=
al
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