We will consider several civilizations active during the Middle Ages.For Europe, this was a time of limited sophistication culturally, politically and economically, but for the Chinese, a period of great achievement.

THE CHINESE

The Chinese mounted large-scale ocean-going ventures, and built large, sturdy ships in which to sail.The junks were noted for the stability created by their square prows, and their sea-worthiness that came from having airtight bulk-heads dividing the cargo holds.They were thus virtually unsinkable.Sizable expeditions sailed throughout Southeast Asia, and even as far as East Africa, trading and collecting tribute from the peoples they deemed inferior.Sizable groups of Chinese also settled throughout Southeast Asia, conducting trade by means of smaller coastal vessels, the sampans.Also in Far Eastern waters were Ryukyuan and Japanese sailors and merchants, often deemed pirates by the Chinese.

THE ARABS

Arab sailors were also very active in the Indian Ocean.They pioneered oceanic navigation by means of astronomical and mathematical calculations.They built small high-prowed vessels called dhows, and developed a flexible, triangular sail, the lateen sail, which allowed them to sail across the wind.After the death the the Prophet Mohammed,they proceeded to expand their empire, and conduct trade along the coasts of Arabia, East Africa, India, and the Indonesian archipelago.Many Arabic merchants also settled in these regions, making Islam one of the world’s most influential religions.

THE VIKINGS

As Europe struggled through a comparatively backward period, Scandinavian peoples began to sail its northern waters.Various groups of Vikings developed long, narrow, shallow ships that could be propelled by oar or sail.They came out of Norway and Denmark, initially looting many of the coastal towns of northern Europe and the British Isles.Eventually they became traders and settlers, founding successful communities in Iceland, the British Isles, Normandy and Sicily.For a time, they also had communities in Greenland and Newfoundland.

THE VENETIANS

In the Mediterranean, Venice was a city built on the water.Originally founded on the islands of the lagoon to avoid the marauding Lombards, Venice continued throughout its history to look to the sea.When the government built the arsenal, or state shipyard, in the late 11^th century CE, the Venetians were poised to assist with the crusades, and to trade with the wealthy cities of the Near East, such as Constantinople.The Venetians proceeded to introduce Asian luxury goods into Europe, and built an empire in the Eastern Mediterranean, including the islands of Corfu, Crete and Cyprus.

THE NORTHERN EUROPEANS

As the Venetians inspired commerce, and the Vikings had connected the various peninsulas and islands of northern Europe by sea, a sturdy commerce in staple goods developed.The English shipped wool to Flanders; the Swedes provided wood and iron throughout the region; the north Germans and Poles sold their agricultural products, the Netherlanders sent out many fishing fleets; the Flemish trans-shipped goods obtained from Venetian merchants.The ship that could sail the rough waters of the North Sea was the round-ship, or cog.Enough of these vessels were sailing across northern European waters that eventually a large-scale trade organization emerged, the Hanseatic League.