UNCW HST 102
Age of Nation-States/Belle Epoque
Nationalism : Very Strong
force
- Leads to creation of new states: Italy, Germany, Austria-Hungary, Canada
- Map of Europe (1871-1914) as simple as it has ever been, before or since
Italian and German Unification
- Romantic nationalism combines with political factors
- Italy: Problems: Austrian and Papal control of territory
- Process: Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia created 1815
- Risings and war vs Austria: 1830s, 1859
- Pope Pius IX (Pio Nono) supports then opposes nationalism
- Abortive Roman republic declared 1848
- Duchies, Naples join Piedmont, Lombardy & Venice from Austria
- Rome annexed 1870; Papal State dismantled
- Germany: Problems: Austrian leadership in German-speaking world
- Prussian spirit/history very different from the rest of Germany
- Process: Prussia creates Germany by annexation (Otto von Bismarck)
- Wars vs Denmark, Austria, France gain territory, reduce Austria
- Rhineland reluctantly joins during Franco-Prussian War 1871
France, England, Austria-Hungary (new title 1867), overseas empires
all thrive
- Exception: Austria losing territory, losing prominence in German-spkg
world
- Exception: France humiliated during Franco-Prussian War
- Emperor Napoleon III forced to abdicate, Paris besieged, 3d Republic
- Exception: Marxian socialism and anarchism causing some unrest
- Evolutionary Socialism popular—mild, gradual, non-revolutionary
- Exception: Turkish empire declining in power, still controls large territory
New diplomatic arrangements: alliance system
- Bismarck seeks to address problem of having 2 hostile borders (France, Russia)
- Seven major powers: England, France, Russia, Austria, Prussia, Italy, Turkey
- Bismarck seeks alliance w/ 3 of them: Austria, Italy Turkey
- France allies with Russia (invests heavily in industry, trans-Siberian
RR)
- England allies reluctantly with France (old enemy)
Social Darwinism/Imperialism: heightened European confidence in selves
- Positivism heightens confidence in man, in science, technology, cultural
achievmt
- Charles Darwin (1809-1881); theory of natural selection
- Darwin travels as naturalist on HMS Beagle; observes finches, emus,
coral
- 1859 Origin of Species; accepted by science, condemned by
Pope
- 1871 pub. Descent of Man—links human beings to evolutionary process
- Social Darwinism (de Gobineau, H Spencer—"survival of fittest,
Chamberlain)
- Used to justify NW European superiority; US Imperialism
- Inspires new Imperialism: Africa, So. Pacific, SE Asia
Constitutionalism & Absolutism; England & France
in the 17th Century
ENGLAND, STUART PERIOD: 1603-1714
James VI & I (r. 1603-1625)
- Creation of Great Britain
- Hampton Court Conference
- Gunpowder plot
- Difficulties with Parliament
- 30 Years’ War
- Favorites
- Ulster Plantations
Charles I (r. 1625-1649)
- French wars
- Marriage; Roman Catholic ties
- Difficulties with Parliament, Petition of Right
- Personal Rule
- Bishops’ Wars against Scotland
- Execution of Strafford and Laud
- Civil War
- Execution
Interregnum (1649-1660)
- Oliver Cromwell
- Dismissal of Parliament
- Repression of Scotland & Ireland
- Navigation Acts; Dutch War; Western Design
- Rule of the Saints
Restoration; Charles II (r. 1660-1685)
- Merry Monarch
- Marriage, Catherine of Braganza
- Government
- Plague, London Fire
- Exclusion crises
- Popish plot
James VII & II (r. 1685-1688)
- Catholics in Government
- Marriage, Mary Beatrice of Modena
Glorious Revolution; William & Mary (r. 1689-1701; M died 1694)
- Invitation
- Bill of Rights; Constitutional Monarchy
- Battle of the Boyne
- Penal Laws
- National Bank
- Wars vs. Louis XIV
Anne (r. 1701-1714)
- Scottish Union
- Wars
- Jacobitism
FRANCE; HOUSE OF BOURBON
Henri IV (r. 1589-1610)
- Edict of Nantes
- Solvency
- Assassination
Louis XIII (r. 1610-1643)
- Marie de Medici; Estates General
- Richelieu
- Absolutism
- Thirty Years’ War
Louis XIV (r. 1643-1714)
- Frondes; Mazarin
- Absolutism, Versailles
- Intendants, nobles of the robe
- Colbert, economy
- Revocation of Edict of Nantes
- Wars (1672-1714)
- Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle
HST 102 Enlightenment, Enlightened Despotism
Enlightenment
- Scientific Revolution inspires revolution in thinking
- Secular/deist
- Discover natural laws for human behavior, government
- Salon society, learning becomes fashionable
- Locke
- Treatises on Government; natural rights
- Adam Smith
- Wealth of Nations, invisible hand
- Voltaire
- Satire; critique of religion; championing constitutional monarchy
- Montesquieu
- Advocating representative government
- Diderot
- Rousseau
- Noble savage; ideas on education
- Kant
- Critique of pure reason (pre-sages Romanticism)
- Beccaria
- Penology; advocates rehabilitation of criminals; opposes torture
Enlightened Despotism
Combine absolutism with enlightened governance
- Portugal
- Pombal: Reform universities; expel Jesuits; city planning
- Spain
- Bourbon Reforms: Managed economies
- Carlos III: Expel Jesuits; rehabilitate navy; admire France
- Prussia
- Frederick the Great
- Music; expound theories of government; sophisticated administration
- Russia
- Catherine the Great
- Constitutional reform (aborted); improved administration; increased
serfdom
- Austria
- Joseph II: Repress religion; make nobles accountable to law
- End of Enlightened Despotism
- Despotism triumphs over enlightened ideas
- French revolution causes enormous and immediate reaction against
liberal reform
Industrial Revolution
Pre-conditions
- European overseas trade provides liquid capital
- Investment money moving away from slavery
- England
- Willingness to invest; National Bank; primogeniture
- Agricultural Revolution
- Popularity of finished cotton goods
- Enclosures
- Empire also provides raw cotton (India, Egypt)
- Existing cottage system for finishing wool
Industrial Revolution
- Import of Cotton Goods Forbidden 1700
- Inventions
- Spinning Machine
- Flying Shuttle
- Spinning Jenny
- Factory system
- Gathering processes under one roof
- Motive power
- Other inventions
- Reaper
- Metal rolling mills
Societal changes
- Factory work
- Indoors
- Long hours
- Work at the pace of the machine
- Injuries
- Children work through meals to repair machinery
- Women and children paid less
- Home life
- Gather in factory towns
- Overcrowding
- Poor sanitation
- Entire families work
- Early opposition: Luddites, saboteurs
- Environmental pollution
Trains
- Mining cars on rails
- Steam engines at mines (Newcomen engine)
- Watt and Boulton, steam engine with condenser
- Fears of speed, explosions…replace canal boats
Russian Revolution
19th century Russia
- Open-style (western style) government does not develop; reformists are
radicals
- Alternation between eastern and western styles (East: A1, N1, A3; West:
A2, N2)
- Re: high culture, relaxation of autocracy, foreign influence/travel
- Alexander II (r. 1855-1881) reformist; frees serfs 1861 (still subj.
to mir—village)
- Cultural flourescence (Ballet Russe, playwrights, novelists)
- A2 assassinated by anarchist bomb, 1881
- Alexander III (r. 1881-1894): Russification: Stress Russian Orthodox
faith
- Cultural flourescence continues, but many Russians emigrate to France
- Anarchists, nihilists, communists become radical underground opposition
- Marxian international communism growing in radicalism
- Evolutionary socialism growing in popularity in Europe (worker’s
parties,
- trade unions, Fabian Society, Christian workers’ parties); strikes
- Pope Leo XIII approves political participation on behalf of workers
1890s
- (Pius IX condemned communism 1864—it remains condemned);
- allows workers to participate in politics in non-monarchist states
- (except Italy—Benedict XV permits Caths to vote in Italy, 1915)
- Lenin (1870-1924) in exile; fervent Marxist, professional revolutionary
- 1894 alliance with France brings money, industry, Trans-Siberian Railway
- Industry young, dirty, workers’ conditions difficult
Nicholas II (r. 1894-1917) seeks to avoid diplomatic isolation, retain
autocracy
- Maintains fairly close family ties with cousins George V (England),
Wil II (Ger)
- Russian nobles richest in Europe, Russian peasants poorest
- Russo-Japanese war (1904-1905): Japan sinks Russian fleet; national
humiliation
1905 Revolution: Workers riot in St. Petersburg, fired upon (Bloody
Sunday)
- Add’l strikes; N2 agrees to create Duma; becomes deliberative body
only
- Radical Bolsheviks distinct from slightly more moderate Mensheviks
- WW I: Russian troops fare very badly, little food, few weapons, poor
transport
- N2 w/ troops; monk Rasputin gains influence over Tsarina Alexandra
Revolution (1917, March and November)
- Workers strike; soldiers refuse to put down; N2 (and son) abdicate March
15
- Provisional govt (Kerensky, Menshevik ldr) continues war effort; disastrous
- Lenin returns to Russia; dissolves Duma November 6; minority Bolsheviks
rule
- Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (March 1918), Russia exits WWI, unfavorable
terms
- Excluded from Versailles treaty negotiations
- Civil War (1918-1921) Reds (communists) vs Whites (assisted by UK, US,
Japan)
- Royal family assassinated at Ekaterinburg; Trotsky & Reds win
war
- Lenin (w/ Trotsky) pushes for international revolution; but allows state
capitalism
- Peasants adamantly oppose seizure of property, livestock; Lenin
dies 1924
Stalin: becomes ldr of communist party; rules Soviet Union 1924-1953
(totalitarianism)
- Advocates quick and harsh industrialization (Five-Year Plans); Russia-first
plan
- Eliminates opposition in purges, 1930s; millions killed or exiled to
Siberia
- Distrusted by west; preview of Cold War; earlier lib/intellectual support
weakens
World War I
Pre-War bkgd
- Alliance system (Germany, Austria, Turkey, Italy vs. England, France,
Russia)
- Imperialism
- Germany seeks place in sun
- Naval race (Germany vs. England; [USA also])
- Conflicts over possession of Morocco
- Pan-Slavism: Romantic nationalist desire to create Greater Serbia
- Russian support unreliable
- Balkan powder-keg
- Turkish multi-ethnic, multi-religious empire declining
- Russia expanding toward Black Sea: Turkish provinces taken (Moldavia)
- Wars: Austria vs. Turkey: independence of Bulgaria, Albania, Serbia
- Wars: Serbia vs Austria over Bosnia-Herzegovina, Croatia
- Positivism/hubris: European overconfidence in selves, peace, technology
War
- Assassination of Franz Ferdinand by Black Hand (Serbian terrorists),
1914
- Germany supports Austria; declares war on France
- Russia mobilizes; Germany invades Belgium; England declares war on Germany
- German strategy (von Schlieffen): avoid 2-front war; knock out France
1st
- Trench warfare on western front
- New weaponry necessitates defensive strategy: machine guns, b. wire,
gas
- Other fronts: Russia, Gallipoli, the seas (u-boats); diversions in Ireland,
Mexico
- Russia collapses1917; USA enters war 1917; Armistice 1918
- Casualties: ca. 13 million killed; France, Russia devastated
- Versailles Treaties 1919
- Germany forced to take responsibility for war
- US President Wilson’s Fourteen Points (national self-determination)
- Creation of new countries: Poland, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, Hungary
- Italy dissatisfied, Trieste not awarded as promised
- Austrian and Turkish empires dismantled; Turkish republic proclaimed
Introduction to Post-war world
- Tremendous fear of ever having war again
- Germany prostrated by reparations; great inflation; French occupation
of Ruhr
- French anger at not getting enough reparations, not enough German punishment
- Locarno Pact and Dawes Plan help to stabilize political/economic situations
- Psychological confusion, Lost Generation, roaring twenties
- Popularity of Freudian analysis
- Increased success of women’s movement
- Fads: dances, jazz, pogo sticks, nudism, beach-going, crosswords, hoaxes
- Notable financial success of US stock market, affiliated economies
- Tri-polarity in politics: democracy, fascism, communism
Fascism
Bkgd: Financial and political hardship after the war in Italy, Germany,
Spain
- Revolution in Russia promotes international fear of communism
- Capitalist democracies resented through 1929; perceived as failures
w/ depression
Nature of Fascism: Conformist
- Authoritarian/personality cult
- Favors, respects action
- Organize society corporately (ie, divide and conquer the working class)
- Aggressive foreign policy; ultra-nationalist
- Fervently anti-communist
Italy: enters war on side of allies 1916; does not get promised territories
after the war
- Benito Mussolini (1883-1945), editor of socialist newspaper Avanti
- Fights in war; wounded; Organize fascisti-bands of political
malcontents
- Fascisti running for office, intimidate opponents (violence, castor
oil)
- March on Rome, 1922; Mussolini becomes Prime Minister
- Takes emergency powers
- Corporate state effective through 1920s
- Lateran Accord 1929, creation of Vatican City
Germany: Weimar Republic created just before end of war; Kaiser abdicates
- Germany forced to take blame for war; large reparation payments demanded
- Rampant inflation; France occupies industrial zone (Ruhr); Dawes Plan
1924
- Weimar government (ie a democratic republic) perceived as weak
- Adolf Hitler (1889-1945): Austrian peasant background; failed art student;
- attracted to anti-Semitic groups in Vienna; joins German army
- Injured in war, in hospital when war ended; blamed Weimar, Jews, for
- defeat (as did many other Germans—war fought in France)
- Became involved with National Socialist Workers Party (NSDAP)
- Activist, orator; failed Munich (Beer Hall) Putsch, 1923
- Spends 1923-1925 in prison; writes Mein Kampf
- Continues to agitate for NSDAP; large rallies; compelling orator;
radio
- SA (Storm Troopers) as military arm of party; electoral intimidation
- Nazis winning electoral seats; appeals to unemployed; anti-Communist
- Compels own appt as Chancellor, 1933; emergency powers; Anschluss
- Reichstag fire; SS as fierce personal bodyguards of Hitler; SA purge
1934
- Implements Nuremberg laws against Jews 1936; Olympics 1936
- Crystallnacht; Munich conference 1938; Sudetenland annexed
Spain: Military humiliation in Spanish-American War 1898, Morocco 1922
- Primo de Rivera as Prime Minister, 1923; Corporate state created; Fascism
- Monarchy falls 1931; Republic becomes too radical (liberal) too quickly
- Generals foment Civil War, 1936-1939; Franco emerges as fascist ruler
Socialism
Industrialization: Workers’ conditions deplorable (re: safety, sanitation,
pay, housing)
- Liberalism insists upon little to no poor relief, protection (laissez-faire)
- No class-consciousness: traditional social heirarchy of "estates"
or orders
Enlightenment: notion of finding natural laws for society leads to utopian
socialism
Chartists: Form London Workingman’s Association; present charter to
Parliament
- First organization of workers; incipient idea of collective action,
class identity
Utopian socialists: Industrialists who try to create communities for
workers—alleviate
- poverty, boredom, lack of education
- Shares aspects of Romanticism: preference for rural setting, idea that
we can re-
- create pre-industrial society, idea that in nature life is gentle
- Comte de Saint-Simon (1760-1825): advocates rational management of society
- Charles Fourier (1772-1837): phalansteries-matrix of small planned
communities
- Robert Owen (1771-1858): factory owner; worker happiness; eliminate
boredom
- Experimental societies in the United States: New Harmony, Oneida, Brook
Farm
Positivism
- Auguste Comte: science, human knowledge very close to triumphing (1841
book)
Marxian Socialism
- Karl Marx (1818-1883), radical journalist; lived in Paris, London
- Developed idea of Dialectical Materialism
- Materialism: mankind seeks food, clothing, shelter as primary motive
- Dialectic: Hegel: history moves in a progressive (teleological)
pattern
- Marx combines the two to see the inevitable triumph of the workers
- Partner F Engels publ. Condition of the Working Class in England
(1845)
- Both publish the Communist Manifesto (1848); advocates armed
revolution;
- ownership of factories by workers; egalitarian society
- Marxian communism as Scientific Socialism: i.e.: it has been demonstrated
by the
- scientific method and is true—accurate predictor of the future (positivism)
1848 Risings
- France: Paris workers riot 1848; Louis Philippe abdicates; Republic
proclaimed
- Govt represses workers, Louis Napoleon elected pres.à
Emperor 1851
- Austria: students rebel, want constitution; Emperor flees; troops restore
regime
- Bohemia: Czechs announce Pan-Slavism; nationalist riots put down
- Hungary: Kossuth calls for independence; Diet demands reforms; non-
- Hungarians oppose; Viennese troops defeat Magyars
- Italy: National Unity a goal of liberals, romantics, radicals, incl.
Pope Pio Nono
- Roman Republic declared; Fr. troops defeat; Pope now ultra-conservative
- Prussia: FW4 promises constitution; summons Frankfurt Parliament; reneges
- Ireland: Famine heightens anti-English fervor; nationalist rising fails
- Results: Repressive conservative regimes (again); many lower-middle-class
flee Europe
Russian Revolution
19th century Russia
- Open-style (western style) government does not develop; reformists are
radicals
- Alternation between eastern and western styles (East: A1, N1, A3; West:
A2, N2)
- Re: high culture, relaxation of autocracy, foreign influence/travel
- Alexander II (r. 1855-1881) reformist; frees serfs 1861 (still subj.
to mir—village)
- Cultural flourescence (Ballet Russe, playwrights, novelists)
- A2 assassinated by anarchist bomb, 1881
- Alexander III (r. 1881-1894): Russification: Stress Russian Orthodox
faith
- Cultural flourescence continues, but many Russians emigrate to France
- Anarchists, nihilists, communists become radical underground opposition
- Marxian international communism growing in radicalism
- Evolutionary socialism growing in popularity in Europe (worker’s
parties,
- trade unions, Fabian Society, Christian workers’ parties); strikes
- Pope Leo XIII approves political participation on behalf of workers
1890s
- (Pius IX condemned communism 1864—it remains condemned);
- allows workers to participate in politics in non-monarchist states
- (except Italy—Benedict XV permits Caths to vote in Italy, 1915)
- Lenin (1870-1924) in exile; fervent Marxist, professional revolutionary
- 1894 alliance with France brings money, industry, Trans-Siberian Railway
- Industry young, dirty, workers’ conditions difficult
Nicholas II (r. 1894-1917) seeks to avoid diplomatic isolation, retain
autocracy
- Maintains fairly close family ties with cousins George V (England),
Wil II (Ger)
- Russian nobles richest in Europe, Russian peasants poorest
- Russo-Japanese war (1904-1905): Japan sinks Russian fleet; national
humiliation
1905 Revolution: Workers riot in St. Petersburg, fired upon (Bloody
Sunday)
- Add’l strikes; N2 agrees to create Duma; becomes deliberative body
only
- Radical Bolsheviks distinct from slightly more moderate Mensheviks
- WW I: Russian troops fare very badly, little food, few weapons, poor
transport
- N2 w/ troops; monk Rasputin gains influence over Tsarina Alexandra
Revolution (1917, March and November)
- Workers strike; soldiers refuse to put down; N2 (and son) abdicate March
15
- Provisional govt (Kerensky, Menshevik ldr) continues war effort; disastrous
- Lenin returns to Russia; dissolves Duma November 6; minority Bolsheviks
rule
- Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (March 1918), Russia exits WWI, unfavorable
terms
- Excluded from Versailles treaty negotiations
- Civil War (1918-1921) Reds (communists) vs Whites (assisted by UK, US,
Japan)
- Royal family assassinated at Ekaterinburg; Trotsky & Reds win
war
- Lenin (w/ Trotsky) pushes for international revolution; but allows state
capitalism
- Peasants adamantly oppose seizure of property, livestock; Lenin
dies 1924
Stalin: becomes ldr of communist party; rules Soviet Union 1924-1953
(totalitarianism)
- Advocates quick and harsh industrialization (Five-Year Plans); Russia-first
plan
- Eliminates opposition in purges, 1930s; millions killed or exiled to
Siberia
- Distrusted by west; preview of Cold War; earlier lib/intellectual support
weakens
World War I
Pre-War bkgd
- Alliance system (Germany, Austria, Turkey, Italy vs. England, France,
Russia)
- Imperialism
- Germany seeks place in sun
- Naval race (Germany vs. England; [USA also])
- Conflicts over possession of Morocco
- Pan-Slavism: Romantic nationalist desire to create Greater Serbia
- Russian support unreliable
- Balkan powder-keg
- Turkish multi-ethnic, multi-religious empire declining
- Russia expanding toward Black Sea: Turkish provinces taken (Moldavia)
- Wars: Austria vs. Turkey: independence of Bulgaria, Albania, Serbia
- Wars: Serbia vs Austria over Bosnia-Herzegovina, Croatia
- Positivism/hubris: European overconfidence in selves, peace, technology
War
- Assassination of Franz Ferdinand by Black Hand (Serbian terrorists),
1914
- Germany supports Austria; declares war on France
- Russia mobilizes; Germany invades Belgium; England declares war on Germany
- German strategy (von Schlieffen): avoid 2-front war; knock out France
1st
- Trench warfare on western front
- New weaponry necessitates defensive strategy: machine guns, b. wire,
gas
- Other fronts: Russia, Gallipoli, the seas (u-boats); diversions in Ireland,
Mexico
- Russia collapses1917; USA enters war 1917; Armistice 1918
- Casualties: ca. 13 million killed; France, Russia devastated
- Versailles Treaties 1919
- Germany forced to take responsibility for war
- US President Wilson’s Fourteen Points (national self-determination)
- Creation of new countries: Poland, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, Hungary
- Italy dissatisfied, Trieste not awarded as promised
- Austrian and Turkish empires dismantled; Turkish republic proclaimed
Introduction to Post-war world
- Tremendous fear of ever having war again
- Germany prostrated by reparations; great inflation; French occupation
of Ruhr
- French anger at not getting enough reparations, not enough German punishment
- Locarno Pact and Dawes Plan help to stabilize political/economic situations
- Psychological confusion, Lost Generation, roaring twenties
- Popularity of Freudian analysis
- Increased success of women’s movement
- Fads: dances, jazz, pogo sticks, nudism, beach-going, crosswords, hoaxes
- Notable financial success of US stock market, affiliated economies
- Tri-polarity in politics: democracy, fascism, communism
World War II
Preliminaries: Hitler establishes union (Anschluss) with Austria, 1934
- Aggression against Jews in Germany, late 1930s
- Establishment of Rome-Berlin Axis 1936; Japan added
- Munich Conference, 1938; annexation of Sudetenland (Czechoslovakia)
- Policy of Appeasement at its height
- Non-Aggression Pact with Stalin, 1938 (shocks world)
The War: Invasion of Poland, 1939; France drawn into War; easy victory
over Poles
- German invasion of Norway
- Stalin takes Finland, Baltic Republics; Phony war in the west
- Paris falls, June, 1940; Vichy gov’t allies w/ Hitler; Battle of Britain,
1940, 1941
- Russians win battle of Stalingrad, 1943; end of German successes
The Allied Response: Winston Churchill rallies Allies (Blood Sweat &
Tears speech)
- Royal Family stays in London during bombing; lifts spirits
- Charles de Gaulle continues to lead Free French from London
- Allies invade No. Africa; Rommel; Invasion continues into Italy; Mussolini
killed
- Russians push back from Stalingrad; Germans denied oil reserves at Baku
- D-Day invasion of Normandy beaches, June 6, 1944
- All sides press on toward Berlin; Russia liberates; Hitler suicide April,
1945
- Unease between US/UK and ally Soviet Union; United Nations established,
1945
The War in the Pacific: Japan in Manchuria ; moves through W. Pacific
twd Indonesia
- Surprise attack at Pearl Harbor, Oahu, December 7, 1941; USA declares
war
- Battle of Midway; USA bests large Japanese fleet of aircraft carriers
- Island-hopping amphibious war; US takes islands; enormous casualties
- Firebombing of Japan home islands from Okinawa
- US working on atomic bomb; becomes available spring, 1945
- President Roosevelt dies April, 1945; Truman decides to drop atomic
bombs
- Avert further American casualties; win war before Russia comes in
- Hiroshima August 6, 1945; Nagasaki August 9, 1945; Japan surrenders
The Holocaust: Anti-Semitism strong in Europe, Vienna; Hitler influenced
- Many Jews in Germany; most assimilated—difficult to tell from other Germans Hitler’s
Mein Kampf identifies "Final Solution" to Jewish problem—genocide
- Nazi violence against Jews intermittently, 1920s and early 1930s
- 1936 Nuremberg laws reduce freedom of Jews; comparatively few leave
Germany
- Crystallnacht 1938, organized violence against Jews & Jewish businesses
- Deportations begin c 1941—from occupied areas; Jews removed to Labor
Camps
- Process on-going, escalates; first death camps ca 1943; few know true
reality
- Seizure of wealth; deportation of those with mental illness, gypsies,
homosexuals
- Mass executions in gas chambers; large-scale shootings on Russian front
- Russians liberate camps 1945; world becomes aware of Final Solution
Post WWII era
Cold War: Fear of the Soviet Union, 1917-1989
- Sacco and Vanzetti; mistrust of Stalin; depression mistrust of capitalism
- Truman: Containment—US opposes communist goal of world-wide presence
- NATO, f. 1949; Warsaw pact founded in response 1950
- Chinese Revolution 1949; world’s most populous nation becomes communist
- Korean War: US opposes communist incursion into Korea; China aids north
- McCarthyism: US Senate holds hearings to root out communists in US
- Brinksmanship: US politicians threaten USSR; compete to be most anti-comm Missile
gap: announced by Pres. Candidate Kennedy, escalates weapons race
- Space Race: Kennedy vows to put man on moon by 1970
- Cuba: Revolution 1959; Bay of Pigs failed US invasion 1961; Missile
Crisis ‘63
- Vietnam War: 1954-1975; associations with civil rights movement
- Détente: Nixon visits China, 1972; lessening of official paranoia,
despite rhetoric
- Arms reduction: nuclear test ban treaty 1963; SALT 19
- Fall of Berlin Wall, break-up of Soviet Union, 1989
European Recovery
- Marshall Plan: US money to Europe to bolster economies; avert communism
- Most aid goes to Germany; many US loans forgiven
- Keynesian economics: deficit spending to cure recession
- European Coal and Steel Community f. 1952; cooperate re: prices, markets
- Common Market; f. 1957à European
Economic Communityà EC
- Gradual elimination of tariffs, customs w/in union
- Gradual standardization of wages, investments, infrastructures,
stability
- Significant rise in poorest member economies: Greece, Ireland, Portugal
De-Colonization
- Anti-Imperialist sentiment; begins early in the century
- Boer War, Russo-Japanese War, Spanish Morocco, Titanic, WWI—all
- reduce confidence in the superiority of the west
- Political economists question fiscal value of colonies
- Balfour Declaration, 1917: UK promises to create independent Jewish Palestine
- Promise not kept; Israel proclaimed, 1948
- League of Nations (f. 1919): Advancement of French, British authority
- old Ottoman Empire: UK influences Palestine, Jordan; France—Leb, Syria
- Post World-War II independence of lg nations: Indonesia, Philippines, India
- Clamor for aid from USSR, USA—stakes rise in Cold War
- Algeria, Congo—particularly brutal wars reinforce unfairness of colonialism
- Independence in Sub-Saharan Africa, Caribbean: Pan-Africanism, Negritude
- Portuguese revolution 1974: Independence and war in Angola, Mozambique
- Assistance of United Nations for new nations; "most-favored-nation"
status
- Multi-national corporations succeed; resentment of the west
- Authority of IMF, World Bank: development encouraged, but strict rules
