The Direct Approach to Literacy Instruction Inventory of Essential Knowledge and Skills can be used in several ways:
1. It helps teachers to see the principles of logic and instructional design that underlie all Direct Instruction curricula. This will enable teachers to understand the organization of lessons and the precise wording of instruction.
2. It can be used to plan complete and integrated literacy curricula in schools of education.
3. It can be used to assess education students' and new teachers' knowledge and skills.

The Inventory is divided into three parts:
1. The theory of direct, explicit instruction.
2. General methods of direct, explicit instruction.
3. Principles, methods, and skills of direct, explicit instruction in a literacy curriculum.

Each item in this section focuses on essential concepts and principles of Direct Instruction.

1. The theory of direct instruction is a scientific theory.  It is not a philosophy or set of value orientations.
(a) Concepts and terms refer to observable features of instruction and learning.

(b) Concepts are operationalized (defined) in the form of precise examples.

(c) Propositions (or "rule relationships") are logically interconnected. For example,
"The learning process is inductive."
"The learner is simply shown which examples are the same."
"The learner must identify the sameness that binds them."
"In manipulating the examples to rule out particular interpretations, we follow juxtaposition rules."
"To show sameness, we juxtapose examples that are greatly different and we treat the examples the same way."
"To show difference, we juxtapose examples that are only minimally different and we treat the examples differently"
(Engelmann & Carnine, 1991, 17).

(d) Propositions (or "rule relationships") are empirically testable. The Theory of Direct Instruction consists of propositions (and their impications for
instructional design) that have been validated through scientific experiments; these propositions and implications are not
based on speculation, intuition, and anecdotes.

2. There are five kinds of knowledge.
The four kinds of cognitive knowledge are: verbal associations, concepts, rule relationships (propositions), cognitive strategies. The fifth kind of of knowledge is physical operations.
(a) Verbal associations include simple facts ("Three plus four is seven" "Jefferson wrote the first draft of the Declaration of Independence."); verbal chains (e.g., stating the phases of cell division or the days of the week); and verbal discriminations (e.g., pointing to or sorting things by name: red/blue, metaphors/similes.

 (b) Concepts are sets of events or objects that have some common quality or qualities. Concepts include:
(1) basic concepts; e.g., red (the class of things with this quality); and m "says"/means "mmm."
(2) comparative concepts; e.g., redder, louder.
(3) lower-order concepts; e.g., red; and that m "says"/means "mmm".
(4) higher-order concepts; e.g., color; and that letters "make" sounds.

(c) Rule relationships, propositions, or "joining forms."  These are statements that join concepts. For example, "All dogs are mammals." "The more weight you lift, the stronger you become." "If pressure increases, temperature increases."

(d) Cognitive strategies, or "complex forms." These include:
(1) cognitive problem solving strategies (e.g., sounding out words and solving math problems); and
(2) strategies for communication about events (e.g., writing papers).

(e) Physical operations, or routines; e.g., writing alphabet letters, pronouncing words.

3.  Direct Instruction curricula assume that learners have certain capacities.
Assumed capacities are:
(a) To learn qualities from examples; for example, to learn (induce) that the shape of m (not the color or size of m, or the position of m in a word or on a page) is the essential feature that "controls" saying "mmm."

(b) To generalize on the basis of sameness. For example to say "mmm" when m is in a new word--mat.

4.  Direct Instruction curricula make few assumptions about learners' capacities.
Three reasons are:
(a) The less is assumed about learners' capacities (e.g., to figure things out on their own), the more curriculum developers and teachers are obliged to focus on: (1) design features, such as logical progression of tasks, distribution of practice, clarity and juxtaposition of examples; and (2) precise features of learners' performance, such as how many times learners do a task
before they become skilful, learners generalizing knowledge to new examples, the retention of skill over time, learners
performing a skill independently.

(b) Curricula and instruction can be evaluated and improved only when detailed features of instructional design and features
of learners' performance are specified. Therefore,

(3) Curricula developed with attention to the details of design and learners' performance will be more effective than curricula
not developed with attention to the details of design and learners' performance.

5. Direct Instruction curricula are organized around strand/track sequences, not lesson/unit sequences.
Direct Instruction curricula consist of a number of strands, or tracks. For example, Reading Mastery Level I consists of strands on pronunciation of sounds, identifying sounds, blending, sounding out words, story reading, answering questions about pictures, answering questions about stories, and others. The tasks on each strand progress from more elemental to more complex, and from more general to less general. For instance, the sounds pronunciation strand begins with "aaa," "mmm," and "sss"; it ends with "koo" (as in qu),"zzz," and "uuu" (as in use). A daily lesson of about 30 minutes consists of short exercises.

Each exercise focuses on tasks from one or more strands.

In contrast to curricula organized around lessons or units, curricula organized around strand or track sequences have the
following benefits.
(a) A more learnable (smaller) amount of new information is presented each lesson. In contrast, lesson/unit sequences spend
too much time each lesson on one sort of task.

(b) A better distribution of practice, because the same sort of task is worked on for a short time each lesson over a number of days/lessons.

(c) More discrimination possibilities (i.e., more opportunities to compare, contrast, and work on a wide variety of examples
and problems), because instruction on a strand is spread over a large number of days/lessons.  Therefore,

(d) Greater chances of mastering each task.  And therefore,

(e) Higher likelihood of retention.

6. Several principles guide the progressive arrangement of tasks along a strand or track.
The principles for arranging tasks along a track or strand are:
(a) To teach elements before teaching compounds; e.g., teach new sounds before teaching words that contain the new sounds.

(b) To progress from more isolated tasks (e.g., teach new vocabulary words) to more complex tasks (e.g., students then read text containing the new vocabulary words).

(3) To progress from skills/tasks with more general application (e.g., decoding strategies) to skills/tasks with less general
application (e.g., memorizing words or using the shape of a word as a cue).

(d) To progress from tasks that are immediately useful (e.g., the letters/sounds a, m, and s) to tasks that are useful later and in other contexts (e.g., the letters/sounds g and ing.)

7. Direct Instruction curricula consist of larger and smaller units of knowledge. Each smaller unit (for example an exercise in a lesson): (a) is derived from, (b) is embedded in, and (c) contributes to the larger units.
Direct Instruction curriculum units, from larger to smaller, include:
(a) Strands or tracks that run through a curriculum; e.g., the strand on statement inference in Corrective Reading: Comprehension.

(b) Daily lessons; e.g., lesson 52 in Corrective Reading: Comprehension A.

(c) Exercises within lessons; e.g., exercise 1 (on statement inference) of lesson 52.

(d) Elements of communication as teacher and students work on exercises. These communication elements include:
(1) Information statements from the teacher.  "Everybody listen. Pollution in the air increases every year."
(2) Questions. "When does pollution increase in the air?"
(3) Signals for students to respond; e.g., hand-drop.
(4) Student's response. "Every year."
(5) Teacher's confirmation. "Yes, every year."
(6) Error correction. For example, a student says, "I don't know." The teacher responds, "Every year. (model). When does pollution increase in the air?" (test)

8. Earlier exercises in lessons (e.g., an exercise on statement inference) contribute to students' learning later exercises (e.g., on deductions) in that same lesson.
For example, statement inference is part of the more complex skill of drawing deductive inferences from several premises
(statements). Therefore, an exercise on statement inference early in a lesson gives the learner some of the skills needed to
perform the more complex task of deduction. Likewise, an early exercise in a reading lesson teaches new vocabulary words,
and a later exercise in the same lesson involves reading a story containing those words.

9. Skills learned in earlier lessons are used and are embedded in the skills taught in later lessons.
For example, earlier lessons in Corrective Reading: Comprehension teach students the strategy for making simple deductions. Later lessons teach students to use this strategy to examine the logic of more complex passages.

10. There are five structural (communicational) bases for faultless communication.
The five structural (communicational) bases for faultless communication are:
(a) A set of positive examples. For example, m  m m and m are positive examples of the same letter/sound.

(b) A set of negative examples or nonexamples. For example, o b and s are nonexamples of m.

(c) A signal accompanying each example that signifies sameness or difference. "This sound (teacher points to m) is mmm.
This sound (teacher points to a) is not mmm." (Or, "This sound is aaa.")

(d) A range of examples that shows variation of the common quality. For example, m would be in different colors, sizes, fonts, positions in words, and positions on a page.

(e) A "test" of generalization to assure that the learner has received the communication. "Is this (teacher shows a different
style of m) mmm?"

11. There are four facts and rules about communicating through examples.
The four facts and rules about communicating through examples are:
(a) It is impossible to teach a concept (e.g., dog) though presentation of one example. This is because: (1) any example has
several features; and (2) the learner may infer that the wrong feature or set of features (tail, four legs, long hair) defines the
concept.

(b) It is impossible to present a group of positive examples that communicates only one interpretation. For example, if a student is shown five examples of dogs, the student may infer that "dog" signifies/means four legs, or short muzzle, or floppy ears.

(c) Any sameness shared by both positive and negative examples rules out a possible interpretation. For example, if the teacher points to a picture of a dog and says "dog," and then points to an adjacent picture of a cow and says "not dog," the concept dog cannot logically be defined by four legs—one sameness. Likewise, the vertical line shared by b and d cannot logically be what defines b in contrast to d.

(d) A negative example rules out the maximum number of interpretations when the negative example is least different from
some positive example. For example, if the teacher holds up a yellow pencil and says "yellow" and then holds up a blue pencil and says, "not yellow," the similarity of all of the noncolor features (point, eraser, length, material) rules these out as features that "control" how the examples are named.

12. There are five principles of juxtaposition—i.e., arrangements of examples.
The five principles of juxtaposition are:
(a) To ensure clarity, use the same wording on juxtaposed examples: the wording principle.
"First word. What word? mammal.
Next word. What word? herbivore.
Next word. What word? glacial."

(b) To minimize the number of examples needed to demonstrate a concept, juxtapose examples that share the greatest
possible number of features: the set-up principle.  In this way, the remaining, defining features will stand out.

(c) To show difference between examples, juxtapose examples that are minimally different and treat the examples differently: the difference principle.  Again, if examples and nonexamples are very similar in nonessential ways, then the essential, or defining features will stand out.

(d) To show sameness across examples, juxtapose examples that are greatly different and indicate that the examples have
the same label: the sameness principle.

(e) To test the learner, juxtapose examples that bear no predictable relationship to each other: the testing principle. For example, if the teacher wants to see if students can read the word fox, and she juxtaposes the words lion and fox, students may guess (not decode) what fox says because the word fox goes with lion—they are names of furry animals. Instead, the teacher should juxtapose "fix," "fax," and "fox," which have no conceptual relationship to one another. Therefore, students must attend to differences in the middle letters that make the difference in what each word says and means.

 13. There is a design principle for showing sameness.
To show sameness, juxtapose examples that are greatly different; and treat (e.g., by naming) each example the same way.
For example, juxtapose a piece of granite that is large and pink with a piece of granite that is small and gray. Since they are
both named granite, the student logically must look for something besides color and size that "makes" them examples of the
same concept—namely, quartz, feldspar, and mica.

14. There is a design principle for showing difference.
To show difference, juxtapose examples that are only minimally different; and treat (e.g., by naming) them all differently.
For example, juxtapose a small piece of gray granite and a small piece of gray quartz. Since they were given different names,
the student logically must look for something (namely mica and feldspar) besides color, size, and quartz that "makes" them
examples of different concepts. Or, juxtapose the written words slip and slim and say each word while pointing to it. Since
everything else is the same, the m and p logically must "make" the difference in how they are pronounced.

15. There are three arrangements of examples that foster generalizations: interpolation, extrapolation, and stipulation.
(a) Interpolation: If the learner receives communication about three examples along a continuum (such as from light blue to
dark blue), the learner will also identify any example that is intermediate as part of the same concept, blue.

(b) Extrapolation: If a small change makes a positive example negative, then a larger change will also make an example
negative. For example, if a small addition of yellow to red paint shifts the name of the color from "red" to "not red," then adding even more yellow will also, by extrapolation, make the color "not red." Likewise, if a small amount of decision making by a nonelected minority shifts the name of the form of politics from democratic to nondemocratic, then, by extrapolation, a larger amount of decision making by a nonelected minority would also be named nondemocratic.

(c) Stipulation: Repeatedly demonstrating examples that are highly similar; presenting only these examples; and treating
each example the same way. For example, it would be stipulation if the teacher presented samples of different poems that
had the same rhyme scheme, and called them all "poetry."

16. It is important avoid teaching students stipulation errors.
A stipulation error is an error of "undergeneralization." Because the learner has repeatedly been shown a limited range of
variation of examples of a concept, the learner erroneously induces the generalization that the range of the concept is limited
to the examples presented. For example, if all examples called "fractions" that are presented to the learner have a denominator larger than the numerator, the learner may induce the undergeneralization that the only things that are fractions are expressions that have denominators larger than the numerators. Likewise, if the only examples that the teacher presents of what she calls "poetry" involve rhyming, then students may, by stipulation, wrongly infer that the only thing that is poetry is a set of lines that rhyme.

17. Continuous conversion is an important design feature.
Continuous conversion involves changing one example into the next example without interruption of any sort; e.g., slip/slap/slop.

The teacher points to slip and says "slip"; she quickly replaces the i with a, points to slap and says "slap"; then she replaces a with o, points to slop and says "slop." This format clearly reveals the essential features (a, i, o) that "control" the pronunciation and meaning of each word.

18. There are three principles for creating a faultless sequence of the continuous conversion of examples.
(a) First, demonstrate the concept.
"This word is slip."

(b) Then follow the demonstration with a series of examples and nonexamples. For example,
"This word is slip.
This word is slap.
This word is slap.
This word is slip."

(c) Then follow this series with tests. For example,
"First word... What word?...slip
Next word...What word?...slap
Follow the test with examples of contextual variation in which the concept might occur; e.g., the words slip and slap are now in a book.

19. There are two analyses of instruction: stimulus locus analysis and response locus analysis.
(a) Stimulus locus analysis concerns the logical analysis of knowledge and the logical analysis of communication. For example, a stimulus locus analysis of instruction would ask whether:
(1) The five structural (communicational) conditions for faultless communication are met (item 10 above).
(2) Instruction was designed according the four facts and rules about communicating through examples (item 11).
(3) Instruction was designed according to the five principles of juxtaposition (item 12).
(4) Instruction was designed to foster interpolation, extrapolation, and proper stipulation.

(b) Response locus analysis identifies behavioral characteristics of the individual learner, and shows how these characteristics enable vs. inhibit learning from the communication. Examples might be a student's difficulty hearing differences in sounds, difficulty saying sounds immediately after seeing the letters, short attention span.

20. There is a clear rationale for using signals; e.g., the hand-drop signal or the point-touch signal, that communicate "do it."
Signals:
(a) Sustain group and individual focus.

(b) Ensure that students are focused on the right events; e.g., letters on a page, the teacher's mouth.

(c) Ensure a quick transition from information presented by the teacher ("This sound is mmm.") to students applying the knowledge ("What sound?...").

(d) Help students to follow directions.

(e) Help students to respond together, and to think of an answer by themselves and not follow a leader.

(f) Provide a familiar routine that builds security.

(g) Enable the teacher to sustain a brisk pace so that more is learned.

21. There is a rationale for using prompts that are added to examples.
Prompts help make relevant features more obvious.

22. There are two kinds of prompts: difference prompts and sameness prompts.
Features of difference and sameness prompts are as follows.
(a) Difference prompts are used to create a greater difference between minimally different examples. For example, if 2/3 + 4/3 were juxtaposed with 2/3 x 1/3 on a practice sheet, students may not notice the multiplication sign. So, the teacher accentuates the difference by using a large criss-cross line   x   instead of a small x to prompt the cross-multiplication of two fractions.

(b) Sameness prompts are used to accentuate a feature that is the same across all examples. For example, in a beginning
reading curriculum a right-pointing arrow is placed under words to indicate the left-to-right direction for reading.

23. There are three basic programs for teaching new, complex responses.
The three basic programs for teaching new, complex responses are:
(a) The essential-response-features program. The learner works within the context of the routine, and at first performs features that are essential to the routine. For example, the first feature or skill taught in bike riding might be the essential feature of balancing on the bike while peddling.

(b) Enabling-response-features program. The learner works within the context of the routine, and at first produces enabling responses that are involved in every instance of the task and that permit essential responses to be performed. For example, putting paste on a toothbrush is not the essential feature of brushing teeth (scrubbing teeth with the brush is), but putting paste on a toothbrush enables (facilitates) the essential feature.

(3) Removed-component-behavior program. The initial learning context is different from that of the routine, and the learner at first works on some component of the routine. For example, students might first learn how to pronounce the sounds of some letters outsideof the context of seeing and reading the letters.
"Listen...aaa.
Say it with me... aaa."
Then the teaher points to the letter a and says, "What sound?...aaa"
"Yes, aaa."

24. There are three stimulus-locus problems that learners may have.
Three stimulus-locus problems are:
(a) The learner does not transfer from one situation to another. For example, the learner reads well from a word list but not from a line in a book.

(b) The learner does not differentiate between two situations or applications. For example the teacher points to the word "man" on the board, says "Say it fast," and moves her finger quickly ("slashes") from under the m to the end of the word, but the student says "mmm  aaa  nnn" rather than "man."

(3) The learner can perform from some instructions, but not from the instructions provided by the task under consideration.

25. There are three response-locus problems that learners may have.
The three response-locus problems are:
(a) The learner can produce a certain response in some context, but cannot do it without prompting when presented in the
expected context.

(b) The learner cannot produce the response that is called for.

(3) The learner is purposely not cooperating.

26. Error correction has four common features.
The four common features of error correction are:
(a) Remedy one primary problem. For example, a student adds instead of subtracts. The student knows which routines are
signified by + vs. -, but the student is not paying sufficient attention to the signs.

(b) Create juxtapositions that permit rapid repetition of the skill to be corrected. For example juxtapose addition and subtraction problems.

(3) Provide adequate practice. For example, work on a number of addition vs. subtraction problems right after the error was made and corrected, at the end of the lesson, and during the next several lessons.

(d) Follow the correction with confirmation, and demonstrate performance in the original context. For example, after the student completes several practice problems, the teacher says, "Yes, you saw the plus sign and you added. You saw the minus sign and you subtracted. Now let's go back to the earlier problems."

27. There is a routine strategy for correcting non-chronic errors.
The strategy for correcting non-chronic errors has the following steps:
(a) Model the correct answer. "That word is shovel."

(b) Test on the missed item. "What word?...shovel"

(c) Back up several tasks or items and then test in the original order. "Let's go back to the third word...What word?"

28. There is a strategy for correcting chronic errors that indicate general confusion (a high percentage of mistakes) that occur
within a sequence (Correction I)
The strategy for correcting chronic errors has the following steps:
(a) Firm the original sequence and correct each mistake with the format: model-test-backup and repeat. For example, the original sequence might be a word list: back, rack, take, sack, rake. The correction for misidentifying rack would be
"That word is rack.
What word? rack.
Yes, rack.
Starting over. First word."

(b) Firm the learner on a parallel sequence using different examples but presenting the same discriminations and wording.
A parallel sequence might be a different word list, but that requires students to make the same letter discriminations (ck vs. ke) as on the original list. hack, jack, fake, lack, sake.

29. There is a strategy for correcting chronic errors on subtypes (e.g., misidentifying a yellow apple as a pear) that occur within a sequence (Correction II).
The strategy for correcting chronic errors on subtypes has the following steps:
(a) Firm the original sequence.

(b) Construct a sequence containing examples of the subtype of items missed.

(3) Firm the learner on this sequence and parallel sequences if necessary.

(d) Firm the learner on the original sequence with the missed subtype.

30. There is a strategy for correcting chronic errors that occur in the context of another activity (Correction III).
The strategy for correcting chronic errors that occur in the context of another activity has the following steps:
(a) Firm the missed task by modeling the correct answer, testing on the task, backing up several tasks, and repeating the tasks in the original order. Then

(b) Present a sequence designed from the task that the learner missed.

31. A program that teaches to mastery has many features.
Features of a program that teaches to mastery are:
(a) Individualization occurs from the beginning; e.g., testing and proper placement of each student.

(b) Groups are homogeneous with respect to the performance level of all students.

(c) Adequate time is scheduled daily.

(d) Progress between levels is continuous; i.e., there is no more than a one or two day break between levels, such as the
transition from Reading Mastery I to Reading Mastery II.

(e) Students' progress is monitored regularly.

(f) The same standards are applied to all students.

(g) Students reach every "step" of a program on schedule.

(h) Steps level—i.e., steps make irrelevant—individual differences in, for example, age, rate of learning.

(i) Student performance matches the level of performance assumed by each step.

(j) Students are at least 70% correct on anything introduced for the first time--indicating that prerequisite skills are firm.

(k) Students are 90% correct on parts of a lesson that deal with information and skills introduced earlier in the program
sequence.

(l) Students are virtually 100% firm on all tasks and activities by the end of each lesson.

(m) The rate of student errors is low enough that the teacher can complete lessons in the allotted time.

(n) All errors are corrected.

(o) The teacher moves to the next exercise only when all students are firm on the current exercise.

(p) The teacher moves students within and across levels of a program as quickly as their performance permits.

32. Initial and expanded instruction have different features.
Initial instruction involves:
(a) Clear, unambiguous communication of new material.

(b) Organization of examples for maximum clarity.

(c) Frequent assessment.

(d) More prompts.

(e) A narrower range of generalization and application.

Each item in this section focuses on specific features of instruction—student-teacher communication.

A. PREPARATION:
Placement testing and grouping.

1. Placement tests are given to students before instruction begins.

2. Teachers use placement test information to group children at different levels of a curriculum

3. Teachers adjust the size of learning groups in light of learners' current skills. Five is the optimum for very young children and for children who have difficulty learning. The larger the group, the more time and effort it takes to teach basic group-lesson skills and skill at working independently, and to reduce difficult behaviors. However, the more skilful and engaged students are, the larger the group may be.

Time and Materials.

4. Teachers follow the daily schedule; for example, starting and ending lessons on time.

5. Teachers keep teaching materials organized and readily available.

6. Teachers maintain accurate records (such as rate and accuracy checkouts and error data sheets), and have them readily
available.

7. Teachers keep student materials (take homes, writing materials) readily available for student use.

8. Teachers ensure that all students have their relevant materials (e.g., reading book) before the lesson begins.

9. Teachers read and practice the script ahead of time so that the teacher knows what's coming next in the lesson. Practice
enables the teacher to speak faster and without gaps between exercises; i.e., to communicate fluently. This sustains the
momentum of the lesson and therefore sustains students' attention, energy, and involvement.

B. MANAGEMENT

General Rules for Participation

10. Teachers establish and teach ground rules for productive participation.
(a) Teachers establish ground rules from the beginning. "We sit tall. We put our feet on the floor. We look at the teacher or
book. We take our turn when Teacher gives the signal."

(b) Teachers post rules clearly where students can see them.

(c) Teachers state the rules and have students repeat the rules at the start of early lessons or when needed.

(d) Teachers add a few rules if needed. "We do not make fun if a person makes a mistake."

(e) Teachers remind students of rules just before transitions; e.g., entering the room and taking assigned seat, moving from
group lesson to independent work, changing from independent work to putting away materials, lining up to return to home class.

Independent Activity.

11. Teachers explain the steps and appropriate behavior during independent group activities, such as take homes.

12. Teachers efficiently distribute and collect supplies, materials, and seatwork

13. Teachers provide appropriate extra activities and materials for students to work on after they have completed assigned
independent work.

14. Teachers plan and review with students procedures for how students may ask questions during independent work

Maintaining Student Attention.

15. Teachers adjust the length of lessons in relation to students' skills and attention. Lessons are for about 30 minutes with
young children and children who have difficulty learning. The teacher marks in the presentation book at the end of the exercise where he or she finished, and begins at that spot the next time.

16. Teachers arrange seating so all students can easily see and hear (e.g., in a semi-circle) and so the teacher can easily see and hear and touch each student (e.g., to reinforce).

17. Teachers seat in direct line of vision those students who have a harder time learning.

18. Teachers seat students with behavior problems close to the teacher and apart from each other.

19. Teachers focus exactly and directly on the instructional objective, and do not give extraneous information. Direct instruction lessons are a sequence of tightly connected logical units. Therefore, adding examples and commentary after an exercise—
"Yes, that  word is slip. You know how you can slip on the ice. And maybe fall down. That could hurt."—

breaks the momentum, interferes with students' remembering what they just learned (reading the word "slip"), and inhibits students' engaging in the next exercise.

Additional examples, commentary, and group discussion can occur later, during expansion activities.

20. Teachers scan the group frequently while presenting a task to see that all students are attending and performing relevant
actions, such as following the written text with their finger.

21. Teachers remind students to engage in relevant behavior. Teachers address reminded to the group. "I need to see everyone tracking with their finger."

22. Teachers give behavior-specific praise in a timely fashion ; e.g., as it is happening, right after a task, and before the next task.
(a) For specific behavior: "I love the way you're all sitting big!" "Look at Jackie. She's got her feet on the floor. She's ready to learn." "Great! Only two mistakes. Let's read the story again and make only one mistake."

(b) For long-term changes in behavior: "You read a whole book! Now you can read books on your own!" "You know how to get ready to start. That is going to help you to learn."

23. To give at least four positives statements for every correction--to keep the atmosphere pleasant.

24. Teachers distribute praise to the students in all activities: the direct instruction group, individual students, the seatwork group, and for following rules during transitions.

25. Teachers use tangible rewards (for awhile) if young children do not respond well to verbal praise. Use pieces of chalk, crackers, raisins, stars—something that will get the children energized and willing to make the effort to succeed. Always tell the children why they are receiving them. Pair the verbal praise with the tangible reward.

26. Teachers use the Teacher/Kids game. The teacher puts a mark in the Kids' column when students are sitting big, do a hard exercise with no mistakes, respond well to error correction, try harder than during the last exercise, etc.

"That was perfect. You read all the words with no mistakes. Five points for you." The teacher puts a mark in the Teacher column when a student or the group is not sitting big, etc. When students win the game (e.g., at the end of an exercise or lesson) they get some kind of back-up reward.

The Teacher/Kids game is not used in a punitive way. The teacher says, "I get a point this time. Let's see everybody sitting big so you can get a point next time. The teacher does not say, "You're not sitting right, so I get a point."

27. Teachers use a "change -up." When students become fatigued, the teacher stops the lesson and starts a short sequence of physical activities. "Stand up...Put your hands in the air...Shake your hands...Hop up and down...Okay. Let's start again." This re-strengthens cooperation and attention and helps discharge energy.

28. Teachers respond to disruptive behavior in a matter-of-fact way. The teacher states the proper behavior and points out and praises a student who is modeling desirable behavior. "We sit up in our chair, feet on the floor...Jackie is sitting up in his seat. He knows how to sit the right way."

29. Teachers use a two-part method for handling continued disruptive behavior.
(a) The teacher gives a matter-of-fact warning followed by praise for appropriate behavior.

(b) The teacher removes a student from the group, but gives the student an opportunity to return within 3-5 minutes.

30. To vary the presentation style (voice, movement) during lessons—animated, vivacious.

Pacing.

31. Teachers move through the lesson at a brisk pace. For example, the teacher begins the next task as soon as praise or a
correction was given for the last task.

32. Teachers pause for a longer time on difficult tasks before giving the signal. "This is a tough one. All by yourself...Get ready........." (audible signal).

33. Teachers provide transition statements between tasks. "That was excellent saying those sounds. Nancy, I loved your indoor voice. Jose you read the words perfectly."

C. SIGNALS

34. Teachers secure student attention before presenting a task
(a) Teachers make clear and explicit statements of knowledge objectives for every exercise, lesson, and series of lessons.
Objectives are defined by what students will be able to do. "My turn. I'll show you how to say these sounds without stopping between the sounds."

(b) Teachers use an attention signal. "Everybody, look."

35. Teachers use signals whenever and how they are specified in the Presentation Book.

36. Teachers use the hand-drop signal when the task calls for students to look at the teacher.

37. Teachers use the audible signal (e.g., tap pencil on book, clap) when the task calls for students not to look at the teacher; for example, reading their books.

38. Teachers use the point-touch signal when, for example, pointing to words or symbols on the chalkboard.
"First word. (Point to the word.) What word? (Touch next to the word)...skipped.
Next word. (Point to the word.) What word. (Touch next to the word)...stared.
Next word. (Point to the word.) What word. (Touch next to the word)...leaned."

39. Teachers use the sound-out (or looping) signal as students sound out part of a word. The teacher places her finger near
the ball on the left side of the arrow under the word "me.'" She moves her finger to the m. Then she moves her finger from the m in a loop—down and then back up—to the e. Then she moves her finger to the right end of the ball. As she performs the signal, students sound out the word, mmmeee.

40. Teachers use the sequential-response signal in oral tasks that have specified responses in a specified sequence.
For example,
"There are two facts. First fact. (Hold up one finger). The man was very strong.
Second fact. (Hold up second finger.) The plane had a broken engine."
Or, (Hold up one finger.) "First you'll say mmmm." (Hold up second finger. ) "Then you'll say at."

41. Teachers use the say-it-fast signal. The teacher puts her finger on the ball on the arrow on the left side of the line under the word. She says, "Say it fast" and slashes quickly to the right along the line to the end of the arrow.

42. Teachers use proper pause and punch.
(a) "This word rhymes with (pause) sick (punch)."

(b) "Now you get to read these words the fast way. (pause) Get ready. " (audible signal)

43. Teachers define, are on the lookout for, and notice students' signal errors. Students' signal errors include responding
before or too late after the teacher's signal.

44. Teachers correct signal errors; e.g., if one or more students respond ahead of a signal. "Wait for my signal. Again. Read it the fast way. Get ready." (audible signal)

45. Teachers ask a question and then to call on the group or individual students.

46. Teachers give individual turns towards end of most tasks.

47. Teachers test individual children only after the group’s responses are firm. "Your turn. Why are these things the same?
(Pause.)... Jack?"

If the teacher first makes sure that the whole-group is firm, it is likely that each student will be able to give a firm response when answering independently.

48. Teachers give the most turns to students who take the longer time to catch on—the students seated directly in front. By watching these children during the group practice of the exercise, the teacher can tell when they are ready to respond individually. When they can do the exercise without further correction, the teacher can assume that the other students will be able to do it as well.

49. Teachers give only 2-4 individual turns. [More turns will slow the lesson.]

50. Teachers repeat the original group task when individual turns indicate that the group is not firm.

D. FORMATS

51. Teachers use the general instructional format: model-lead-test.
(a) Model. "First I'll say (pause) me slowly. Listen. Mmmeeee."

(b) Lead. "Now it's your turn to say the words slowly with me. Get ready...(hand drop signal)...mmmeee."

(c) Test. "Your turn to say the words slowly by yourselves. Say mmmeee. Get ready...(hand drop signal)...mmmeee"

52. Teachers repeat the model-lead-test, or the model-test format until the group is firm, before going on to the next task or
exercise. "Let's try it again. Sound it out."

53. Teachers use appropriate formats for teaching different sorts of tasks; e.g., teaching continuous sounds, stop sounds,
new sounds, sounds firm-up, pronunciation, rhyming, say it fast, etc.

E. CORRECTIONS

54. Teachers define, are on the lookout for, and notice response errors; e.g., mispronunciation, omission, adding a word.
Students' response errors in a reading activity include omitting a sound or word; adding a sound or word; misidentifying a sound or word; making a mistake and self-correcting; sounding out a word but not saying it fast.

55. Teachers stop students when errors are made and immediately give the correction.

56. Teachers correct most or all errors immediately.

57. Teachers use the appropriate correction procedure: model-lead-test-restart-delayed test or model-test-restart-delayed test.
(a) (A student misidentifies a word.) Teacher says, "That word is noses."

(b) Teacher re-presents task. "What word?"

(c) Teacher back up a few steps (e.g., in a word list) and presents the activities (e.g., words) in order. "Starting over." Or, "Let's go back to lean."

(d) Teacher completes the task and then returns to the missed word.

(e) Teacher repeats the whole task if more than a few errors were made.

58. Teachers correct errors made on different sorts of tasks.
(a) (Student makes an error reading an irregular word. Teacher says, "That word is question. What word? (Signal)...question

(b) "Spell question." (Signal for each letter) q u e s t i o n

(c) "What word?" (Signal)...question

(d) Teacher backs up in the list and repeats.

59. Teachers address corrections to the group, quickly, and in a matter-of-fact fashion—to show that making errors is no big deal.

60. Teachers use delayed tests (i.e., later in lesson) to firm individuals and the group on items that had been missed.

61. Teachers use other students to model a correct a response for the rest of the group. "Next word...Rudy...(point-touch signal)...stepped. Yes, stepped.... Everybody, what word?...stepped."

62. Teachers alternate easier questions with a question that has been previously missed when firming the group or individuals on difficult questions.

63. Teachers break down a difficult task into smaller steps or components so that these may be worked on during the lesson and/or in later lessons. For example, students may not be firm on adding "ed." So, the teacher firms this part.

64. Teachers use pre-corrections before tasks that are likely to give the group or individuals difficulty.
"Remember, this (points to letters) says, 'ed.'
Say it with me...(point-touch signal)... ed
Your turn. (points to letters) Get ready...(point-touch signal)...ed Yes, ed.
Now, let's read these words with no mistakes. Get ready..."

Each item in this section completes the statement, "The teacher knows..."

A. TEACHING PRE-DECODING SKILLS

Teaching Sounds Pronunciation
An important pre-decoding skill is pronouncing sounds.

1. The precise format for what to say and do when teaching students to pronounce individual sounds, such as aaa, mmm, and sss.

2. Exactly which sounds to work on first, which sounds to work on next, and which sounds to work on after that when teaching students to pronounce individual sounds, such as aaa, mmm, and sss.

3. Exactly how to "test" immediately whether students have learned to pronounce the individual sounds being worked on in a lesson, such as aaa, mmm, and sss.

4 Exactly how to correct student errors in pronouncing the individual sounds being worked on in a lesson.

Teaching Rhyming
Rhyming is an important pre-decoding auditory skill; for example, "at," "mat," "hat."

5. The precise format for what to say and do when teaching students to rhyme words.

6. Exactly which sounds to work on first, which sounds to work on next, and which sounds to work on after that when teaching students to rhyme words.

7. Exactly how to "test" immediately whether students have learned to rhyme the words being worked on in a lesson.

8. Exactly how to correct student errors in rhyming the words being worked on in a lesson.

Teaching Students to Telescope Sounds
That is, Say Words the Fast Way. For example, the teacher says "ssssiiiiit" and students say "sit."

9. The precise format for what to say and do when teaching students to telescope sounds.

10. Exactly which sounds to work on first, which sounds to work on next, and which sounds to work on after that when teaching students to telescope sounds.

11. Exactly how to "test" immediately whether students have learned to telescope the sounds being worked on in a lesson.

12. Exactly how to correct student errors in telescoping sounds being worked on in a lesson.

Teaching Students to Segment Words
That is, Say Words the Slow Way. For example, the teacher says, "ssssaaaad" and students say, "ssssaaaad."

13. The precise format for what to say and do when teaching students to segment words.

14. Exactly which words to work on first, which words to work on next, and which words to work on after that when teaching students to segment words.

15. Exactly how to "test" immediately whether students have learned to segment the words being worked on in a lesson.

16. Exactly how to correct student errors in segmenting words being worked on in a lesson.

Teaching Students to Perform A Sequence of Actions Shown on Pictures From Left to Right
For example, the picture on the left shows a child with her hand on her head. The picture on the right shows the same child smiling. Students imitate these actions.

17. The precise format for what to say and do when teaching students to perform actions pictured in a sequence from left to right.

18. Exactly which sequence of pictured actions to work on first, which sequence of pictured actions to work on next, and which sequence of pictured actions to work on after that when teaching students to perform actions pictured in a sequence from left to right.

19. Exactly how to "test" immediately whether students have learned to perform actions pictured in a sequence from left to right being worked on in a lesson.

20. Exactly how to correct student errors in performing actions pictured in a sequence from left to right being worked on in a lesson.

B. TEACHING STUDENTS DECODING SKILLS

Types of Phonics Instruction

21. The five kinds of phonics: explicit, implicit, synthetic, analytic, and linguistic.

22. How to determine what sort of phonics a textbook or curriculum is teaching.

23. How to give tests showing which children probably need explicit phonics instruction.

24. The rationale for why it is better to teach beginning readers the sounds that letters make (s says "sss") before teaching
students the names of letters (that is, the alphabet).

25. The rationale for why it is better to teach beginning readers or remedial readers to sound out (decode) words before they are taught to sight read words.

26. The rationale for why it is better, with beginning readers and remedial readers, to introduce new words in isolation (for example, in lists) and later in context (for example, in stories).

27. The rationale for why it is better to teach students to read accurately first and then to read more quickly and smoothly.

28. The rationale for why it is better to teach students to read orally first and then to read silently.

29. Exactly when to distribute practice on decoding sounds and words within lessons and from lesson to lesson.

Letter/Sound Relationships

30. The 44 letters/sounds relationships in English. For example, the letter m says "mmm."

31. The principles for deciding the most effective sequences for teaching students the 44 letter/sound relationships; that is,
which letter/sound relationships to work on first, which letter/sound relationships to work on next, and which letter/sound
relationships to work on after that.

Teaching Students to Decode Voiced Letters/Sounds, such as mmm, d, and eee

32. The precise format for what to say and do when teaching students to decode voiced letters/sounds.

33. Exactly which voiced letters/sounds to work on first, which voiced letters/sounds to work on next, and which voiced letters/sounds to work on after that when teaching students to decode voiced letters/sounds.

34. Exactly how to "test" immediately whether students have learned to decode the voiced letters/sounds being worked on in a lesson.

35. Exactly how to correct student errors in decoding the voiced letters/sounds being worked on in a lesson.

Teaching Students to Decode Unvoiced Letters/Sounds, Such as sss, t, and sh

36. The precise format for what to say and do when teaching students to decode unvoiced letters/sounds.

37. Exactly which unvoiced letters/sounds to work on first, which unvoiced letters/sounds to work on next, and which unvoiced letters/sounds to work on after that when teaching students to decode unvoiced letters/sounds.

38. Exactly how to "test" immediately whether students have learned to decode the unvoiced letters/sounds being worked on in a lesson.

39. Exactly how to correct student errors in decoding unvoiced letters/sounds being worked on in a lesson.

Teaching Students to Decode Continuous Letters/Sounds, Such as aaa and ooo

40. The precise format for what to say and do when teaching students to decode continuous letters/sounds.

41. Exactly which continuous letters/sounds to work on first, which continuous letters/sounds to work on next, and which continuous letters/sounds to work on after that when teaching students to decode continuous letters/sounds.

42. Exactly how to "test" immediately whether students have learned to decode the continuous letters/sounds being worked on in a lesson.

43. Exactly how to correct student errors in decoding continuous letters/sounds being worked on in a lesson.

Teaching Students to Decode "Stop" Letters/ Sounds, Such as t, g, and k

44. The precise format for what to say and do when teaching students to decode stop letters/sounds.

45. Exactly which stop letters/sounds to work on first, which stop letters/sounds to work on next, and which stop letters/sounds to work on after that when teaching students to decode stop letters/sounds.

46. Exactly how to "test" immediately whether students have learned to decode stop letters/sounds being worked on in a lesson.

47. Exactly how to correct student errors in decoding stop letters/sounds being worked on in a lesson.

Teaching Students to Decode Letter/Sound Blends, Such as "brrr" and "ssst"

48. The precise format for what to say and do when teaching students to blend letters/sounds.

49. Exactly which letters/sounds blends to work on first, which letters/sounds blends to work on next, and which letters/sounds
blends to work on after that when teaching students to decode letters/sounds blends.

50. Exactly how to "test" immediately whether students have learned to decode letters/sounds blends being worked on in a lesson.

51. Exactly how to correct student errors in decoding letters/sounds blends being worked on in a lesson.

Teaching Students the Strategy for Decoding Regular Words the Slow Way; That is, Sounding Out (e.g., "mmmaaannn").

52. The precise format for what to say and do when teaching students to decode regular words the slow way (i.e., to sound out).

53. Exactly which regular words to teach students to decode the slow way (i.e., to sound out) first, which regular words to work on next, and which regular words to work on after that.

54. Exactly how to "test" immediately whether students have learned to decode regular words the slow way (sound out) that being worked on in a lesson.

55. Exactly how to correct student errors in decoding (sounding out) regular words being worked on in a lesson.

Teaching Students the Strategy for Decoding Regular Words the Fast Way; e.g., "man"

56. The precise format for what to say and do when teaching students to decode regular words the fast way.

57. Exactly which regular words to teach students to decode the fast way first, which regular words to teach students to decode the fast way next, and which regular words to teach students to decode the fast way after that when teaching students to decode regular words the fast way.

58. Exactly how to "test" immediately whether students have learned to decode regular words the fast way being worked on in a lesson.

59. Exactly how to correct student errors in decoding regular words the fast way worked on in a lesson.

Teaching Students the Strategy for Decoding Irregular Words the Fast Way; e.g., "was" and "said"

60. The precise format for what to say and do when teaching students to decode irregular words the fast way.

61. Exactly which irregular words to teach students to decode the fast way first, which irregular words to teach students to decode the fast way next, and which irregular words to teach students to decode the fast way after that when teaching students to decode irregular words the fast way.

62. Exactly how to "test" immediately whether students have learned to decode irregular words the fast way being worked on in a lesson.

63. Exactly how to correct student errors in decoding irregular words the fast way being worked on in a lesson.

Correcting Decoding Errors

64. The four major kinds of reading errors (omitting a word, mispronouncing a word, adding a word, misidentifying a word) and how exactly to correct each one and to provide remedial instruction if needed.

C. INCREASING READING FLUENCY

65. Exactly how to increase students' fluency (accuracy plus speed) at reading sentences and passages by providing signals (e.g., clapping) to help students pace their reading.

66. Exactly how to increase students' fluency (accuracy plus speed) at reading sentences and passages by using incentive systems to help students keep track of errors and to reduce errors.

67. Exactly how to increase students' fluency (accuracy plus speed) at reading sentences and passages by providing short, timed reading practice in which students track and correct errors.

D. SPELLING

68. The three major strategies for teaching spelling: phonemic, whole-word, and morphographic.

69. Exactly when to teach spelling with the phonemic, whole-word, and morphographic strategies.

70. The precise format for what to say and do when teaching spelling with the phonemic, whole-word, and morphographic strategies.

71. Exactly how to "test" immediately whether students have learned to spell new words being worked on with the phonemic, whole-word, or morphographic strategies in a lesson.

72. Exactly how to correct student errors in spelling words being worked on with the phonemic, whole-word, or morphographic strategies in a lesson.

E. TEACHING STUDENTS COMPREHENSION

Vocabulary: e.g., Synonyms and Definitions

73. The precise format for what to say and do when teaching students new vocabulary words.

74. Exactly which vocabulary words to teach first, which vocabulary words to teach next, and which vocabulary words to teach after that when teaching students new vocabulary words.

75. Exactly how to "test" immediately whether students have learned new vocabulary words that being worked on in a lesson.

76. Exactly how to correct student errors when using new vocabulary words being worked on in a lesson.

Specific Comprehension Skills

77. The precise format for what to say and do when teaching students to answer literal questions about a text they are reading.

78. The precise format for what to say and do when teaching students to identify cause and effect in a text they are reading.

79. The precise format for what to say and do when teaching students to recall details and events in a text they are reading.

80. The precise format for what to say and do when teaching students to make predictions about what will happen in a text they are reading.

81. The precise format for what to say and do when teaching students to identify the main idea in a text they are reading.

82. The precise format for what to say and do when teaching students to construct a sequence of events in a text they are reading.

83. The precise format for what to say and do when teaching students to find supporting details in a text they are reading.

84. The precise format for what to say and do when teaching students to make comparisons about events in a text they are reading.

85. The precise format for what to say and do when teaching students to apply rules about events in a text they are reading.

86. The precise format for what to say and do when teaching students to identify logical fallacies a text they are reading.

87. The precise format for what to say and do when teaching students to identify a character's feelings in a text they are reading.

88. The precise format for what to say and do when teaching students to interpret a character's point of view in a text they are reading.

89. The precise format for what to say and do when teaching students to interpret a character's motives in a text they are reading.

90. The precise format for what to say and do when teaching students to predict a character's actions in a text they are reading.

91. The precise format for what to say and do when teaching students to identify important features of a setting in a text they are reading.

92. The precise format for what to say and do when teaching students to interpret figurative language in a text they are reading.

93. The precise format for what to say and do when teaching students to interpret literary irony in a text they are reading.

F. READING GROUPS

94. Exactly how to conduct reading groups; for example, how to arrange seating, how to provide incentives, how to establish rules for productive participation (e.g., attention, taking turns), how to strengthen students' productive participation with specific praise.

G. REMEDIAL READING

Giving Placement Tests

95. Exactly how to give placement tests in at least one of the major research-based direct instruction reading curricula (e.g.,
Corrective Reading).

96. How to use placement test information from one of the major research-based direct instruction reading curricula (e.g.,
Corrective Reading) to group children at different levels of the curricula.

Instructional Formats

97. The precise formats for what to say and do when teaching decoding—that is, pronunciation, sounds identification, rhyming, sounding out, word reading, word discrimination, sentence reading, story reading, fluency building, and error correction--in one of the major research-based direct instruction curricula (e.g., Corrective Reading).

98. The precise formats for what to say and do when teaching comprehension—that is, vocabulary, common information, analogies, inductions, deductions, following sequenced instructions, analyzing contradictions, and organizing and using information--in one of the major research-based direct instruction curricula (e.g., Corrective Reading).
 

This Inventory was derived from a substantial body of research and teacher experience that includes the following sources.

1. Adams, M.J. (1990). Beginning to read: Thinking and learning about print. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
2. Baker, S.K., Simmons, D.C., & Kameenui, E.J. (1995a). Vocabulary acquisition: Synthesis of the research.         Eugene,   OR: University of Oregon, National Center to Improve the Tools of Educators.
3. Baker, S.K., Simmons, D.C., & Kameenui, E.J. (1995b). Vocabulary acquisition: Curricular and Instructional implications for diverse learners. Eugene, OR: University of Oregon, National Center to Improve the Tools of Educators.
3. Brophy, J.E., & Good, T.L. (1986). Teacher behavior and student achievement. In M.C. Wittrock (Ed.), Third handbook of research on teaching (pp. 328-375). New York: McMillan.
4. Carnine, D.W., Silbert, J., & Kameenui, E.J. (1997). Direct instruction reading (Third edition). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill.
5. Chall, J. (2000). The academic achievement challenge. New York: The Guilford Press.
6. Dixon, R. (1985). "Sequences of instruction."
7. Chard, D.J., Simmons, D.C., & Kameenui, E.J. (1995a). Understanding the primary role of word recognition in the reading  process: Synthesis of research on beginning reading. Eugene, OR: University of Oregon, National Center to improve the Tools of Educators.
8. Chard, D.J., Simmons, D.C., & Kameenui, E.J. (1995b). Word recognition: Curricular and instructional implications for diverse learners. Eugene, OR: University of Oregon, National Center to Improve the Tools of Educators.
9. Dixon, R., & Engelmann, S. (1979). Corrective spelling through morphographs. Columbus, OH: SRA/McGraw-Hill.
10. Dixon, R, & Engelmann, S. (1999). Spelling Mastery. Columbus, OH: SRA McGraw-Hill.
11. Engelmann, S. (1999). Student-program alignment and teaching to mastery. Paper presented at 1999 National Direct
    Instruction Conference. Eugene, OR.
12. Engelmann, S. & Carnine, D. (1991). Theory of instruction. Eugene, OR: ADI Press.
13. Engelmann, S., and Osborn, J. (1999). Language for Learning. Columbus, OH: SRA McGraw-Hill. 14.
14. Engelmann, S. et al. (1995). Reading mastery I-VI. SRA. Macmillan/McGraw-Hill.
15. Engelmann, S. et al. (2001). Reasoning and Writing A-F. Columbus, OH: SRA McGraw-Hill.
16 Engelmann, S. et al. (1998). Corrective Reading: Decoding and Corrective Reading: Comprehension. Columbus, OH:
 SRA/McGraw-Hill.
17. Gunn, B.K., Simmons D.C., & Kameenui, E.J. (1995a). Emergent literacy: Synthesis of the research. Eugene, OR: University of Oregon, National Center to Improve the Tools of Educators.
18. Gunn, B.K., Simmons D.C., & Kameenui, E.J. (1995b). Emergent literacy: Curricular and instructional implications for diverse  learners.Eugene, OR: University of Oregon, National Center to Improve the Tools of Educators.
19. Langenberg, D. et al. (2000). Report of the National Reading Panel. Bethesda, MD: National Institute of Child Health   and Human Development. NIH Pub. No. 00- 4769.
20. Rosenshine, B., & Stevens, R. (1986). Teaching functions. In M.C. Wittrock (Ed.), Handbook of research on teaching (Third edition)  (pp. 376-391). New York: McMillan.
21. Smith, S.B., Simmons, D.C., & Kameenui, E.J. (1995a). Synthesis of research on phonological awareness: Principles and  implications for reading acquisition. Eugene, OR: University of Oregon, National Center to Improve the Tools of Educators.
22. Smith, S.B., Simmons, D.C., & Kameenui, E.J. (1995b). Phonological awareness: Curricular and instructional implications for diverse learners. Eugene, OR: University of Oregon, National Center to Improve the Tools of Educators.
23. Vitale, M. (2000). Skills for Teaching Direct Instruction Programs. Educational Research Laboratory, East Carolina
University, Greenville, NC.

In addition to published sources, the Inventory draws on several contributions from the Direct Instruction listserv.