Photo: G. Lattanzi, ArchArt		 Rerum Natura:
Animalia Plantaeque Agrorum
Animalia Plantaeque Agrorum (animals and plants of the fields) focuses on the animals and plants that ordinary rural Romans would have encountered in their day to day lives.  In the table to the right, the plants and animals are listed alphabetically by their Latin and English names.

Latin names

 

English Names

 

Canis (Dog)


Picture courtesy History of St. Bernard Dogs

Cultural information: Dogs where used for just about anything you could imagine in Roman times. 

 From highly revered pets of lords and ladies, to staunch guardians of the home, to hunters, beast of burden, or to the famous rescue dogs of the Bernard’s Pass (yes that is the same Saint Bernard). There were apparently many distinct breeds in Rome. Entire burial sites have been discovered dedicated to dogs. In one case a guard dog was buried in the upright guard position and in the same graveyard a very elaborate ceremonial knife was buried with two dogs. Some breeds where lap dogs without direct use in hunting or agriculture but these where still held in high regard from what we can tell. Of course dogs where used in hunting as they are even now days. As well dogs where used in herding livestock and some larger breeds may have been used to pull carts or sleds. Dogs are even known to be related with several Roman gods and goddesses. 

Latin words: 

Related words: 

Modern scientific names: 

Other modern usage: 

Sources Consulted:

Authors: Stephen DaSilva, Kristie Leland, Chip Walton

 

Caper  (Goat)

Cultural Information:

Goats were commonly found in the drier regions of ancient Italy.  According to Columella, goats preferred grazing in thickets and wooded areas since they enjoyed eating bushes and shrubs.  It was particularly important to control the area goats grazed because of their fondness for young saplings which could easily destroy “plantation farming”; therefore, herds were held to flocks of fifty and goat-headers were encouraged to lead their flocks rather than follow them.  Columella also pointed out that goats were “never free of fever” and flocks of more than fifty risked diseases that could spread.  In addition, since goats are sensitive to temperature changes, it was important that their stalls be properly situated as well as properly maintained.

Goats provided Roman farmers with milk, cheese, meat and hair.  Columella’s findings indicate that she-goats produced higher yields of milk than sheep; and based on their body weight, their milk yield was higher than cows.  Additionally, goat milk was preferred for drinking and making cheese of which the hand-pressed cheese were the best known.

Goatskin was used to make heavy outdoor clothing whereas goat hair was often used to weave sacks, ropes and garments known as cilicia.

Photo: G. Lattanzi, ArchArt

 

She-goats often produced two and sometimes three kids a season.  Columella advised that one of each pair of twins be kept to rebuild the stock.  

Latin Words:

Related Words:
There are a number of Latin words that are derived from the root-word “caper” and well as the root word “hircus”.  Some of these words have rather humorous translations.

Latin Proverb:
de lana caprina rixari  meaning  “to contend about trifles.”

Modern Scientific Name:                        

Other Modern Uses:

Sources Consulted:

Authors:  Elizabeth Hailey, Warren Lockie, Walt Massey, Jennifer White

 

Leo (lion).Cultural Information: Lions in ancient Rome were very popular in 
gladiatorial combat, capitol punishment, and sport hunting. Those who fought a 
lion and other animals in combat were called bestiarii(-us) (beast-fighters). 
Lions were caught almost to extinction in some areas due to over hunting to 
supply these animals for the games and staged hunts known as a venatio. 
While Caesar ruled, he used about 400 lions for entertainment purposes 
(Venatio I). Some people of great prestige would also keep lions to show of 
their money and power by taming and parading these "pets". Emperor Elagabalus 
(AD 218-222) kept clawless, toothless lions in his quarters (Zoogoer). Much of 
the Roman art shows lions and other large felines as being caring and 
nurturing and many citizens loved to see lions outside of the arena in 
exhibitions or zoos. However, Roman art did also often use sculptures of lions 
killing prey to symbolize death as seen in the picture of a lion attacking a 
bestiarius. Lions and other beasts were classified by ferocity and nature. 
Wild (ferae) or domesticated (pecudus, mansuetae), toothed (dentatae) or grass 
eating (herbariae, herbaticae, herbanae), and lions often were called 
africanae or libycae- carnivorous (Kyle, pg.77).

Latin Words:
leo, -onis m. lion
lea, -ae f. / leaena, -ae f. lioness

Related Words:
leoninus, -a, -um of a lion
gemo, gemere, gemui, gemitum intransit to sigh or groan; to roar (of lions); 
to coo (of doves); to creak (of things); to sigh over, lament, bemoan 
(transit)

Modern Scientific Names:
Lion= Panthera leo

Other Modern Usage:
Leo is also the name of a northern constellation east of Cancer and the 5th 
sign of the Zodiac. Those born under this sign are referred to as a "leo". ( 
The name Leo arises from the Nemean Lion killed by Hercules as one of his 
first labors whose embodiment rose into the heavens to take it's place forever 
in the stars.)
leonine (adj.) of a lion
Common names based on leo:
Leo- lion
Leon- lion
Leona- feminine of Leo and Leon
Lionel- young lion


Other Mythology with Lions:
Vulcan- a Roman god based on the lion.
Griffin/Gryphon- mythical Greek monster composed of body, tail, and hind legs 
of a lion and the head, forelegs, and wings of an eagle.
Chimaera/ Chimera- fearsome beast in Greek mythology with head of a lion, body 
of a goat, and the tail of a serpent.

Sources Consulted:
Printed sources: 
Oxford Latin Mini dictionary
Kyle, Donald G. Spectacles of Death in Ancient Rome. Routledge; NY, NY, 1998
Online sources:
http://einstein.stcloudstate.edu/Dome/constellns/leo.html
Animal Attributes in Mythology and Folklore: 
http://www.cybercomm.net/~grandpa/animals4.html
The Roman Forum: http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Forum/6946/names.html
Venatio I: http://depthome.brooklyn.cuny.edu/classics/gladiatr/venatio1.htm
Zoogoer: http://www.fonz.org/zoogoer/zrg1998/27(4)

Lupus (Wolf)

 

Cultural Information:  In ancient Roman mythology, the wolf was the special symbol of Mars, the Roman God of War, and symbolized war and lust.  Also according to mythology as told by Livy in his early historical account of the founding of Rome, twin brothers, Romulus and Remus, were placed in a basket and set adrift on the Tiber River by their great uncle who feared the possibility that the brothers would challenge his power.  The brothers were rescued by a she-wolf who cared for them until a shepherd discovered them.  Romulus and Remus founded a new city that was called Rome (named after Romulus who had killed Remus in a quarrel) (McLoughlin 80).

 In The Natural History of C. Plinius Secundus, Pliny refers to tales of “…men transformed into wolves…” as told by the Greeks but promptly dismisses such as “…mere fabulous untruths…” (Turner 95-96).  During Ancient Roman times there were numerous fables written about wolves that project the wolf image as that of warrior-hero or benevolent wolf-mother while others describe the wolf as a creature worthy of compassion because he had been born a wolf.  Later fairytales and folklore besmirch the wolf’s image as a character capable of great fiendishness (Lopez 25-33).

In order to protect their valuable herds of cattle, sheep and goats, the Romans found it necessary to hunt and kill wolves that raided their herds.  As in ancient time wolves can still be found in parts of Italy in particular the Apennines where they spend their time on the move and traveling great distances in search of food.  Wolves are not just expert hunters but are very social creatures that form close knit family groups not unlike humans (Ancient Greece and Rome - An Encyclopedia for Students 251).

Latin Words:

Modern Scientific Name:

Modern Usage:

Sources Consulted:

 

Ovis (Sheep)

Cultural Information

Sheep were one of the most important animals on Roman farms. Therefore, wool from these sheep was one of the most common textiles produced from the Roman farms, and was used throughout the ancient world. Lambs were usually born in November so they could grow up during the winter to thicken their coats as much as possible. They were then sheared in April by farmhands who used iron sheep shears to begin the process of wool-making. The Romans favored sheep so much as a farm asset that they named the Roman Goddess of Sheep, Pales. Roman sheep were also extremely valued for their cheese and milk, which was very popular in Roman times, and still is today.

Latin Words

Related Words

Modern Scientific Names

Other Modern Uses

Sources consulted

Authors: Rachel Beard, Taylor Bode, Johnny Nipper, Aaron Watson

Porcus – The Other White Meat


Picture courtesy Vroma
Cultural Information:   Pigs and Hogs were very important animals in Roman farming.  The typical farm that raised hogs for profit would own 100 to 150 pigs. Different breeds of pigs may have been raised.  Generally farms had around only 10 boars to mate with 100 sows.  The sows were kept separate from the boars until they could be breed around 20 months old. 		  They kept the sows for breeding up until seven years of age, then they were culled (slaughtered). Sometimes piglets were marked to show which sow they belonged to. This, according to Columella, was to prevent inbreeding and it was also the responsibility of the herder to know which litter the pigs belonged to.  The sows would furrow (give birth to) piglets in June or July.  Usually about 12 piglets were born per litter, although they usually did not all survive.  The Roman farmers described this as “survival of the fittest”.  The herds were pastured daily and usually fed on a diet of grains and nuts. Raising hogs involved time and energy but the Romans enjoyed eating them, possibly more than any other farm animal.  The most popular taste at that time was for "suckling pigs” , young pigs still being nursed who tended to have tender, tastier meat. Adult pig meat usually came from castrated boars or sows not used for breeding (Lindsey).

Latin Words:

Related Words:

Modern Scientific Words:   

Other Modern Usage:

Sources:

 

Triticum (Wheat)

Cultural Information:

Wheat was noticed as an important crop in many different areas of Rome. It is particularly notable in the north where wheat grew exceptionally good yields. Roman farmers often inter-cultivated wheat with fruit-trees. Farmers practiced a partial rotation between wheat and legumes also. The method used in planting wheat is known as broadcasting by a herd of oxen. There were two seasons used for sowing wheat, usually the autumn and spring seasons, or planted in rich soil that could carry a crop each year.  Harvesting of wheat took about one and a half days and required long hours of work from the farmer and his plowing animals. Wheat growing in Rome was part of the normal pattern of farming (White 119, 1798-83, 398).

 

Cultural Information:

Wheat was noticed as an important crop in many different areas of Rome. It is particularly notable in the north where wheat grew exceptionally good yields. Roman farmers often inter-cultivated wheat with fruit-trees. Farmers practiced a partial rotation between wheat and legumes also. The method used in planting wheat is known as broadcasting by a herd of oxen. There were two seasons used for sowing wheat, usually the autumn and spring seasons, or planted in rich soil that could carry a crop each year.  Harvesting of wheat took about one and a half days and required long hours of work from the farmer and his plowing animals. Wheat growing in Rome was part of the normal pattern of farming (White 119, 1798-83, 398).

Latin Words:

 Related Words:

  Modern Scientific Names:

Sources Consulted:

Authors:  Brad, Sarah, Tameka