Bibliography
Of works relevant to the Ancient Novel
With annotations by student readers

Anderson, Graham (1984).  Ancient Fiction: The Novel in the Graeco-Roman World.  London and Sydney: Croom Helm.

Chapter One.  As Anderson said in this book, “Readers who approach the fiction of the Graeco-Roman world may come with a sense of curiosity and go with a sense of disappointment” (Anderson 1).  In this chapter there are key discussions on the origins of the Geek novel.  There are many ways to classify the works of ancient fiction: making interesting works appear exceptional and making bad works be presented as typical.  Romance and love-and-adventure are represented as constant themes in ancient fiction.  These styles of writing have appeared in works dating from around the first century BC to the third or fourth century AD.  The picture represented by the novel depends on where the writer chooses to concentrate.  Most critics like to pay attention to the Greek love-and-adventure stories (1).  “There have been a number of different kinds of explanations for the appearance of a novel of young love sometime during the Hellenistic Age” (3).  Anderson comments that it is “not clear why we should have to wait till the first century BC or so for someone to think of putting two adolescents on a boat but effectively preventing their sexual union for most of the plot” (3).   But there was a different style of Greek story where the author focused the story on one location, not let them leave the countryside, Daphnis and Chloe, which is unlike the usual far-traveled couples of Greek romances.  In the Sumerian text, the story of the Sumerian Dumuzi follows their story closely.  This story seems to have influenced the story of Daphnis and Chloe in the terms of sexual experience because the heroines are not aware of the facts of life.  There are a number of essential episodes of “capture by pirates, sexual experiment, rustic debate, problems of parentage and preparation for the bridal bed” that link the Sumerian text Dumuzi or Inanna with them shedding light on the source of the origin of the story.  Many Greek novels have been linked to earlier stories from oriental texts.  From this we gather that “the classical novel was in some significant sense ancient even in antiquity; if Greek civilization did not invent it, it has preserved for us its own version of the world’s earliest known romantic fiction” (19).  (Michael Scott)

Chapter 6: "History and Society."  This chapter discusses how literary works describe historical and societal aspects of ancient Greek life.  The author chooses to use actual historical facts and compare them to the literature.  He also provides examples, which show how the society illustrated in the novels can be somewhat different from reality, as attested from other sources.  This work is mainly directed toward graduate students and professors.  The language and examples can be hard to follow for someone who has limited knowledge of Greek novels.
    Specific historical accounts are used in these love stories to set up wars, which interfere with the lives of the heroes and heroines.  In Chareas and Callirhoe, a war distracts the Great King away from using force on Callirhoe.  This also causes the hero to enter the war on a suicide mission.  As seen in Achilles, war is often used as a tool for adventure, while no era is specified.  The author uses the opportunity to speak of ancient weaponry in the course of Leukippe appearing to be disemboweled.  Specific historical events are possibly implied in other cases.  In AD 182 a Roman commander, Sextus Condianus escapes death by creating a mock execution using hare’s blood and a ram’s corpse.  This incident could have been the source of Leukippe’s miraculous story of escaping her own death.
    When discussing ancient Greek society as described in their novels, Anderson advises the reader to closely examine and come to understand exactly whose viewpoint is being used to describe society.  As an example, Anderson chooses the excerpt in which Clitophon is describing the city of Alexandria.  He notes the beauty of the gates, the deities, and each street.  He does not, however, mention the civic and racial tensions the city was known for.  His description is reality to him though, being a wealthy educated young man.  (Kristina D. Bagwell)

Chapter 7: "Sex and Sentiment."  This chapter discusses such themes as chastity, morals and respectability, and the treatment of homosexuality by comparing various works by both Greek and Oriental authors.  This work is mainly directed toward the use of graduate students and professors.  Because of many unexplained examples, one must be either an avid reader of these novels or a dedicated student to understand some of the references.
    Chastity in the Greek and Oriental novels was discussed by comparing the novels of Xenophon, Heliodorus, Achilles, and Longus.  The main storyline involves two elite families whose children fall in love at first sight.  This accommodates the arranged marriage principle.  The main social concern is strict chastity for the female and a more relaxed expectation for the male.  This excludes the story of Daphnis and Chloe whose chastity is only accidental.  The issue of chastity leads to the respectability and morals of the portrayal of the heroines in these novels.  In the Oriental tale of Ninlil and Enlil, Ninlil stalls Enlil by saying her “sexual organs are not ready yet.”  The Greek authors never directly mention body parts. Achilles slightly comments on the subject, but only because Leukippe is mad and violent.  In Longus, Chloe’s references to her body are completely innocent.  
    Homosexuality is often seen as acceptable, but only if the person is so inclined.  In Habrocomes’case it is unacceptable because it threatens his vow to Anthea.  Daphnis thinks the idea is also inappropriate; being raised in a pastoral setting he has seen that only male and female animals mate.  Longus condemns this because Gnathon would only use Daphnis as a sex-slave.    (Kristina D. Bagwell)

Chapter 8: “Structure and Suspense.”  In this chapter also, the author compares the different novels to illustrate his point.  He examines the similarities and differences of several novels to show how one author can use structure very well, but the stucture of another author can be developed poorly.  He also observes how each author chooses to develop his suspense, and its effectiveness to keep the reader constantly wondering.  Graduate students and professors should benefit from this chapter the most by using Anderson’s explanations to develop their own theses.
    The Sumerian text Dumuzi’s Dream, Longus’ Daphnis and Chloe, and Achilles Leukippe and Clitophon are each used as examples of a structure set up by threes.  In Dumuzi’s Dream there are three attempts on the hero’s life, the last one being successful.  There are three threats to Daphnis and Chloe:  capture by pirates, violence from the Methymnaean youth followed by war with the Methymnaeans.  Chronological sequence is also used to organize the stories, however not to the advantage of Xenophon.  His tale is only aimless and without suspense.  The separate adventures of Anthea and Habrocomes are connected by the pirate Hippothous, but Xenophon resorts to the flimsy use of failure to recognize to keep the story going.  Chariton, Achilles, and Longus do seem to use this chronological sequence to their benefit.  Chariton’s element of bigamy leads the two husbands to meet sooner or later and there is little to direct the readers’ attentions away from this plot.  Achilles and Longus invoke a fast moving plot to keep the reader's attention.  Longus also uses seasons to set up his sequence, while Achilles utilizes three “Scheintod” scenes, or pretended death, and also ecphrasis.
     Surprise is incorporated into these tales by always keeping the reader wondering something.  Daphnis’ and Clitophon’s sudden infidelity amazes the reader; this makes him/her want to finish the books quickly to learn if either of the heroes receives punishment.  The anticipation of omens is used by Achilles to keep his readers in suspense while Apuleius delivers his story so fast that the reader needs to take a breath to catch up.  Petronius’ references to lost episodes create tension and hold the reader’s attention.  (Kristina D. Bagwell)

Chapter 9: “The Sublime and the Subliterary: Longus and Xenophon of Ephesus.”          
Anderson compares the two novels, Daphnis and Chloe by Longus and An Ephesian Tale by Xenophon.  Anderson argues that of the two novelists, Longus is by far the superior writer.  Longus is able to “turn every romantic cliché into a function of his own literary personality and viewpoint.”  Anderson takes specific examples from the texts and discusses how Longus is able to express the innocence of a pastoral life while showing the strength of Love.  Dorcon’s attempt to seduce Chloe is one example.  Despite Dorcon’s attempt, Daphnis and Chloe believe that he is only playing a game, showing their naivety.  Through little effort on the parts of Daphnis and Chloe, the two are continually saved from various perils, thus showing the strength of Love. 
    In contrast to Longus’ writing technique, Xenophon “can only accumulate a sequence of inept mannerisms without any apparent self-critical awareness or control.”  Anderson shows these inadequacies within Book One of An Ephesian Tale.  Xenophon discusses Habrocomes’ complete disregard for Eros, yet this characteristic is not followed up throughout the novel.  After the parents of Habrocomes and Anthia receive a clear oracle about their children’s fate, they allow the two to take a great trip, thus fulfilling the first part of the prophecy.  Anderson argues that a good novelist would have allowed the oracle to be vague enough to allow the initial trip to occur, but Xenophon chooses not to and thus the reader becomes easily disinterested because of the lack of continuity within the novel.  (Ray Congo)

Chapter 10: “Phoenician Tales and other Fragments.”  The focus of this chapter is to allow the reader to understand how book fragments are interpreted and unified to form a coherent version of the original story.  Lollianus’ Phoenician Tales was only known in fragments and the story seemed very complicated and confusing at first because of the series of different actions occurring within the fragments.  Yet by comparing the fragments to other known stories, the ideas within Lollianus’ work became understandable.  A few of the same motifs that occur in Phoenician Tales also appear in Arabian Nights.  By comparing the two stories, scholars are able to make sense of the actions occurring within the fragments of Phoenician Tales and place them in their original order.  By comparing novel fragments to known works, common motifs are often found, thus allowing the scholar to give a better interpretation of the events occurring within the fragments.  Anderson goes on to discuss the use of this technique in two other works, Iolaus and Tinouphis, both of which have yet to be fully identified with any other complete work.  (Ray Congo)

Chapter 11: “Fiction and Folktale.”  Anderson looks at some of the commonalities between themes in ancient novels and folktales that originate in the same area.  Anderson argues that Lollianus’ Phoenician Tales and the section from the Arabian Nights are similar because of long-lasting folktales about the same concept within that area.  One of the more common scenarios found in ancient novels is the pretended death, or scheintod.  There is one folktale recorded as late as the nineteenth century within the Caucasus that describes a countryman pretending to kill his wife to get out of a debt that he owes.  The merchant who was trying to collect the debt says he would not have tried to collect the debt if he had known the countryman was going to do such a thing.  When the countryman tells him he will bring his wife back from the dead, the merchant says he does not believe him and will cancel the debt if the countryman can do it.  Of course the countryman is able to ‘save’ his wife because she was not dead.  The use of scheintod is common in ancient novels.  Within Leucippe and Clitophon, this staged death occurs not once, but twice and each causes surprise in the reader.
    Other folktales and novels are compared in similar manners.  Some of these include, Widow of Ephesus by Petronius, Panchatantra by Apuleius, An Ephesian Tale by Xenophon, and The Story of Apollonius Prince of Tyre.   (Ray Congo)

Chapter 13: (198-216) “The Ancestry of the Ass-Tale.” This chapter discusses the eastern and early Greek origins of the story of the man who turns into an ass and back into a man.  It references various ancient eastern texts and Greek texts on which the ass story may be partially based.  Direct quotations in Greek and Latin are provided, along with their translations.   Though the article in most likely intended primarily for scholars, it is also intelligible to the non-expert.  It treats the historical origins of themes within the story, but does not explore possible reasons why they were appealing to the ancient world and why they were repeated.
    The ass story has come down to us in two versions, the Roman version by Apuleius, The Golden Ass, and the shorter Greek version, The Ass, by Lucian.  These are supposed to have been based on the Greek story Metamorphoses by Lucius of Patras.  As this article argues, however, its origins may go back much farther.  The Golden Ass, unlike The Ass contains religious elements.  After many adventures, and undergoing many trials, Lucius, the man who was transformed, was visited in a dream by the goddess Isis.  She agreed to help him become human again if he would become a priest and devote the rest of his life to her.  Graham compares this religious metamorphosis to a similar metamorphosis in the writings of the Sumerian King Shulgi.  In both accounts, the man wishes to become a bird, and becomes an ass instead.  In another Sumerian text, King Gudea of Lagash dreamt that he was a donkey “impatiently pawing the ground” in an attempt to build a temple.  Graham also makes several comparisons to The Arabian Knights.  
    The ass story entered Greek literature through the Milesian tales.  Only fragments of these tales remain, and nature has been a “frequent subject for speculation” of scholars.  Graham establishes various links between The Golden Ass and these surviving phrases.  The Cupid and Psyche story, which takes up a sizable portion of the text of The Golden Ass, is not the first version of the story of Cupid and Psyche, as was previously supposed.  “Much of the digressive material round the Ass-tale,” Graham added, was “already well established at a much earlier stage.”  The article ends with a discussion of the origins of various other details of The Golden Ass. (Rosa Fuller)

Anderson, Graham (1999).  The novella in Petronius.  In Heinz Hofmann, ed.  Latin Fiction: The Latin Novel in Context.  London and New York: Routledge.

Archibald, Elizabeth (1991).  Apollonius of Tyre: Medieval and Renaissance Themes and Variations.  Cambridge, England: D. S. Brewer.

Arnott, W. Geoffrey (1994).  Longus, Natural History, and Realism.  In James Tatum, ed.  The Search for the Ancient Novel.  Johns Hopkins University Press.

This article discusses the historical accuracy of the ancient author Longus.  It focuses on Daphnis and Chloe.  The article notes that Longus is familiar with Lesbos, the setting of the novel, but perhaps only picks this setting because it represents a Utopia.  Also noted is that Longus uses motifs, ideas, and phrases from other writers.  Arnott chooses to examine Longus from the angle of natural history, which classicists have ignored.  A recently published book shows major inaccuracies in Longus’ work.  This book, by Viellefond, proves these inaccuracies in the areas of natural history and horticulture.  Daphnis’ bird catching expedition and Dionysophanes’ park are said to be the largest problems, while ornithologically, the novel is completely accurate.  The article sums up saying that Longus was probably a countryman by his correct comments.  However, he was not from Lesbos, as his commentary shows that his experiences were in the eastern Mediterranean, not specifically identifiable to Lesbos.
     The article is clearly written for scholastic readers. It employs language and ideas meant for research.  Both graduate and undergraduate students could get a lot from this article.  (Kelly Blanchfield)

Beye, Charles Rowan (1993).  Ancient Epic Poetry:  Homer, Apollonius, Virgil.  Cornell University Press. Chapter 6, "The Argonautica."

Bodel, John (1999).  The Cena Trimalchionis.  In Heinz Hofmann, ed.  Latin Fiction: The Latin Novel in Context.  London and New York: Routledge.

Bowie, Ewen (1994).  The Readership of the Greek Novels in the Ancient World.  In James Tatum, ed.  The Search for the Ancient Novel.  Johns Hopkins University Press.

Dowden, Ken (1994).  The Roman Audience of The Golden Ass.  In James Tatum, ed.  The Search for the Ancient Novel.  Johns Hopkins University Press.

Egger, Brigitte (1994a).  Looking at Chariton’s Callirhoe.  In J. R. Morgan, ed., Greek Fiction: The Greek Novel in Context.  London: Routledge.

------ (1994b).   Women and Marriage in the Greek Novels:  The Boundaries of Romance.  In James tatum, ed.  The Search for the Ancient Novel.  Johns Hopkins University Press.

Elsom, Helen E. (1992).  Callirhoe: Displaying the Phallic Woman.  In Amy Richlin, ed.  Pornography and Representation in Greece and Rome.  Oxford University Press.  

Helen E. Elsom wrote the article, “Pornography and Representation in Greece and Rome” as a plea to intellectual persons to question common themes presented in ancient novels. Elsom’s direction of questioning takes the pathway of the role of the heroine; and which audience, ancient men, women, or both, did the character appeal to. Who were these women created for? The elite and literate people who knew how to read these languages? The powerful people who had novels read to them as they lay in the bath? An older generation or for the younger ages?  While scholars ague these very questions today, one thing is certain… the twenty-first century reader may believe that these ancient novels are simply stories full of pornography. Reading about sexual acts leading to and up to a wedding is not something found in every day literature. Nor would one find the presentations of the heroine character as being the most beautiful, sensual, youthful yet fragile of all women. Elsom presents the idea that while today’s audience views the heroine in a much different way than that of the ancient novels, the ancient novelists knew exactly what they were writing and for whom it was written. It is still unsure today if the heroine, in all her beauty and sensuality was written for the pleasure of ancient men readers. Or if her frailty appealed to the more common people and gave them hope. But what is known, is that to whoever’s entertainment 
the heroines were created for, she was fully enjoyed. If this were not true, there would be no preserved novels illustrating the beauty of ancient heroines.  (Laura DeMoe)

Heiserman, Arthur (1977).  The Novel Before the Novel.  University of Chicago Press.

pp. 75-116: The book The Novel Before the Novel, by Arthur Heiserman, is a close examination of the history and literary merits surrounding the ancient novel.  Each chapter is an exploration of individual works on a historical as well as literary level.  Within the third chapter in Heiserman’s book, he examines the story of Chariton’s Chaereas and Callirhoe.   This first look at Chariton’s masterpiece functions as literary criticism. Heiserman’s goal is to dismantle the story of the two Sicilian lovers to look at the driving forces behind author and the text itself.  To complete this examination the story, Heiserman focuses solely on the text Chaereas and Callirhoe without distracting the reader with many outside sources.  The wording is simple, straightforward, and plainly written for undergraduate as well as more advanced readers.  Within the pages of this chapter Heiserman analyzes the use of “erotic suffering” by Chariton.
    The idea of “erotic suffering” is defined by Heiserman as the beauty and desirability of Callirhoe that places her in positions where she is ethically in peril of betraying her standards.  Heiserman points out that through “erotic suffering”, Callirhoe rises to greater and greater positions of power, until she eventually holds influence over the mighty King of the Persian Empire.  Yet, even as Callirhoe’s fortunes increase, her sorrow, longing for Chaereas, and peril also grow.  For Heiserman, Chariton’s novel is one built on the idea of the paradox.  He outlines the whole book as one giant paradox of Callirhoe’s “erotic suffering”.  To understand the paradox of the story, Heiserman outlines seven points of interest in the plot that pertain to this feature.  The first is the plot by the suitors, which climaxes in Chaereas kicking Callirhoe.  Heiserman sees the reader as sympathizing with Callirhoe, and at the same time paradoxically knowing that she is still alive.  The second phase of paradox is Callirhoe’s kidnapping by Theron and her sale into slavery.  The reader feels paradoxical relief that she is alive, yet sorrow for her condition.  
    Next Heiserman focuses on the marriage of Callirhoe to Dionysius.  The arrangement allows her to raise her son safely, yet sadly betrays her first husband.  The fourth phase defined by Heiserman is where Callirhoe believes Chaereas is dead, yet the reader knows that this is not the case.  Following this is the paradox created by the intrigue of Mithirdates, in which the reader understands that the man helping Chaereas does in fact desire to steal Callirhoe from him.  The sixth phase outlined by Heiserman is the trial before the Great King of Persia.  Heiserman points out that the situation of the trial could have been used by Chariton as a cathartic process, to reunite the true loves, and end the story happily.  Yet, ironically, Chariton instead uses it to only increase Callirhoe’s erotic suffering.  The final paradox occurs when Chaereas joins the Egyptian campaign believing Callirhoe to be lost to him, and in the end he wins her back through military conquest.  Chariton adds to this one more concluding paradox, the son of Chaereas and Callirhoe says with his false father.  Thus, in his examination of Chaereas and Callirhoe as a literary piece, Heiserman concludes it is a story filled with paradox.  The tension is enjoyable as the reader wonders at the “erotic suffering” caused by the struggle between Callirhoe’s unsurpassed beauty and her desire to remain faithful to Chaereas.
    After examining the literary nature of Chaereas and Callirhoe Heiserman brings the work into the next chapter he outlines as a discussion.  This chapter has a very unique structure.  Rather than a strict paragraph form, or a focus on just one novel, Heiserman structures this chapter like a philosophical dialog of Plato between three scholars. The discussion focuses on the origins of the novel as a literary form, and the issue of what defines “romance” as a genre of literature.  To tackle such a broad topic, the dialogue ranges over several different ancient texts by authors like Chariton, Homer, and many others.  At points, this chapter reaches a very technical and philosophical level that is difficult to follow.  It eventually becomes more than just a literary conversation. It morphs into a philosophical talk, with the ideas and doctrines of Plato surfacing, and eventually ends without drawing any concrete conclusions (just like the philosophical dialogues of Plato). Without a doubt, this chapter is targeted at the graduate student and professor as reader.
    Within such a complex chapter in his book, Heiserman makes several key propositions about Chaereas and Callirhoe, and all ancient literature in general, that deserve specific mention.  The first problem that Heiserman attempts to tackle is the origin of “romance.”  The three scholars seek to determine if “romance” in the ancient world would be something that was drawn from everyday life, or if this phenomenon of literature draws from epic works like those by Homer.  Following the discussion of the scholars over the origin of “romance,” Heiserman has his dialogue examine Chaereas and Callirhoe, to determine if it can be classified as “romance.”  After several examples and counter-examples, the scholars conclude Chaereas and Callirhoe share characteristics with what can be considered works of “romance.”  Next Heiserman emphasizes that Chaereas and Callirhoe is the oldest existing novel from the ancient world.  While works such as Homer’s Odyssey can be considered popular tales, Heiserman notes this is the first written piece of popular narrative that is composed in prose and not verse, and directed at an audience of rich upper-class women readers.  A complicated look at the origins of literature itself ensues, but is interrupted by Heiserman as he breaks this dialogue to begin his next chapter.  Thus, in his dialogue chapter, Heiserman establishes in a very scholarly and philosophical manner that Chaereas and Callirhoe can be considered a “romance” work, while also are the oldest intact version of an ancient novel.  (Greg Laing)

Konstan, David (1994).  Xenophon of Ephesus: Eros and Narrative in the Novel.  In J. R. Morgan, ed., Greek Fiction: The Greek Novel in Context.  London: Routledge.

This article discusses primarily the treatment of love in Xenophon of Ephesus’ Ephesian Tale.  David Konstan, the author, argues that its reputation, among scholars, as the worst novel of its kind is unjust.  Most of the romantic novels that have survived from ancient Greece “exploit a formula involving young love, hair-raising adventures and close escapes culminating in a happy conclusion.”
    In ancient novels, the hero and the heroine are portrayed as equals in their love.  They are both passive in the face of misfortune, and the chastity of both is valued, though this chastity is more important primarily as a sign of the lovers’ commitment to each other, and may if necessary be sacrificed.  Whereas the classical image of the lover is transient and is “likened to a hunter, and the prey was a young man or woman whose charms inspired the ardour of the pursuer,” in the Greek novel, “ a mutual and lasting union which achieves its ultimate expression in marriage,” is the ideal.  
    In this sense, An Ephesian Tale, which is one of earliest surviving Greek novels, represents an innovation over established ideas about love.  Even the people who fall in love with Habrocomes or with Anthia, the lovers, and try to separate them, desire lasting relationships.  The love of all the characters is physical, yet at the same time, transcends the physical.  For example, an elderly man Habrocomes met in Sicily kept his dead, elderly wife embalmed in his house where he could always see her.  Yet to him she still appeared young and beautiful.  To the equal love of the hero and the heroine is contrasted the love of two men, Hippothous and Hyperanthes.  Hippothous is portrayed as the active lover and Hyperanthes as the passive lover.  Here the active/passive relationship is represented as ill-fated.  
    At the end of the story, when Anthia and Habrocomes returned to Ephesia, Hippothous went with them, bringing his new beloved, the young man Clisthenes.  Earlier in the story, the pirate Corymbus fell in love with Habrocomes, and the pirate Euxinus fell in love with Anthia, and worked together in their attempt to win over the young couple.  As Konstan pointed out, the lasting, reciprocated love of Hippothous and Clisthenes, and Habrocomes and Anthia forms a resolution to the unreciprocated love of Corymbus and Euxinus, showing that not all active/passive love relationships are ill-fated and that equal and unequal love relationships can both succeed in the end.  (Rosa Fuller)

MacAlister, Suzanne (1996).  Dreams and Suicides: The Greek Novel from Antiquity to the Byzantin Empire.  London and New York: Routledge. 

MacAlister includes all of the following novels in her article: Leukippe and Kleitophon, Chaereas and Callirhoe, The Ephesian Tale, Daphnis and Chloe, and certain passages from the Iliad.   In this article, MacAlister describes the different kinds of suicides and how dreams may affect them.  She associates certain types of suicides with different kinds of emotions: for example altruistic motivations for suicide such as dignity, despair, honor, guilt, shame, and old age.  Also, there is a theme of suicide in the novels in which the “suicide action” fulfills a sworn oath or preserved chastity.  She goes on to use different novels in her article to show examples of these certain instances.    It seems from this article that when someone was going to kill themselves, they would try to make the motive one of honor than just out of despair.  The society in which the suicide was committed would question the motive.  If one killed him or herself out of honor, he or she would be more respected than a self-killing out of despair.  This type of suicide may have been viewed as cowardly by the people.  So one huge theme is not necessarily the means by which one dies, but the motive. 
    MacAlister observes this theme of suicide in several of the novels.  In Chaereas and Callirhoe,  Dionysius is ready to kill himself out of despair over Callirhoe.  Plangon, the female slave, goes to Dionysius to explain how Callirhoe would marry him if he would have a wife and a child, but adds her own interpretation of Callirhoe’s answer by telling Dionysius that if forced to be a concubine, Callirhoe will kill herself out of dignity for her lineage.  Here Plangon helps Callirhoe and Dionysius by making Callirhoe’s speech that much more serious, because Dionysius at that point would do almost anything that Callirhoe had requested; anything to win her love.  Since Dionysius thinks that Callirhoe will die out of honor and dignity, it makes him think twice about dying on a cowardly way out of despair.  
     Similarly, in comparing The Ephesian Tale to Chareas and Callirhoe, when the horrible Manto falls in love with Habrocomes, Anthia is prepared to kill herself out of dignity. Of course, one could say that she uses an overtone of dignity to smooth over the true reason why she would want to die: her potential personal loss of Habrocomes, sending her into the depths of despair!  But it is truly hard to contrast despair and dignity suicides, because if Callirhoe really meant to kill herself, would it not be because of the personal despair of being away from her loved ones added to her dignity of her lineage?
    MacAlister seems to target Ancient Novel scholars with this article, but also psychologists.  By comparing the themes of suicide from each of these novels, MacAlister displays the mental and psychological aspect of each person contemplating suicide.   The reader is able to get into the mind patterns of each of these characters, and analyze what it is that would make this person think of self-death.  (Catherine Inglesby)

Mason, Hugh G.  (1999).  The Metamorphoses of Apuleius and its Greek Sources.  In Heinz Hofmann, ed.  Latin Fiction: The Latin Novel in Context.  London and New York: Routledge.

Merkle, Stefan. Telling the true story of the Trojan War: the eyewitness account of Dictys of Crete.  In

Stefan Merkle offers a commentary much in defense of Dictys’ account of the Trojan War, Ephemeris.  He begins by admitting that the stigma of being of poor literary quality very well may be true due to its style being “unpretentious, simple, and reminiscent” (185).  Merkle also addresses Dictys’ believability.         
    Dictys made use of contemporary motifs and portrayed himself through is writing as a reliable historian by providing “details about time, battle formations, and strategic actions” (185).
    Where Dictys begins to diverge from his convincing nature is with the character Achilles, Homer’s main hero in the Illiad.  In Dictys' narrative, Achilles falls in love with a woman named Polyxena.  Merkle points out to his readers that this new twist in the traditional character, Achilles, is strictly plot related as well as increasing reliability of the account.  Dictys “closely connects Achilles’ love for Polyxena with the decisive period of the war”(186).  In the Ephemeris, Achilles asks Hector for Polyxena’s hand in marriage.  Upon being denied the privilege, Achilles is torn by his desire for Polyxena, his disdain for Hector and the Trojans, and his obligations. 
    Achilles is also essential when identifying the motif found throughout Dictys’ novel, as Merkle points out: “Achilles’ increasing severity corresponds to a gradual change in the attitudes of the Greeks during the course of the story” (189).  At the beginning of the Ephemeris, the Greeks act peacefully and live harmoniously, however, ten years later, they are barbarous, and morally deficient compared to them in the past.  Thus the “representation of Achilles… represents the decline of the Greeks” (190).
    Ultimately, Merkle hypothesizes what Dictys' purpose may have been when writing this eyewitness account of the Trojan War—“to reveal the disastrous effects of war on human character” (194).  (L. Rhodes)

Montague, Holly.  Sweet and Pleasant Passion:  Female and Male Fantasy in Ancient Romance Novels. In Amy Richlin, ed.  Pornography and Representation in Greece and Rome.  Oxford University Press.

    This article focuses on the portrayal of woman in Literature, spanning from ancient novels to modern day romances.  For whom the article is written is unclear; while the language used is friendly to that of a general reader, one who is familiar with Daphnis and Chloe would get more out of it.  The focus is placed on Daphnis and Chloe, using Pamela’s Daughters, a romance novel, the Harlequin romance novel series and Leukippe and Clitophon, an ancient novel, as its basis of comparison. 
    Montague notes the objectification and belittlement of women in general in literature, citing that many times the women readers temselves support this objectification.  She says that Harlequin novels are said to be the biggest culprit of this.  The author also says that these novels are so popular because women want to identify with the heroines of these novels.  Contrary to popular belief, it is not only the middle class housewives that read these, but a much larger spectrum of socioeconomic levels.  The article also goes over that formula for a romance, including the “romantic ‘obstacle course’ which the majority of couples in these novels must go through.  Also noted is the fact that romances are very stereotypical in nature.
    The majority of the article concentrates on Chloe’s sexuality and how her virginity is displayed.  Longus is said to have followed the above-mentioned formula for romances, including near death experiences, forced seperations, and foreign suitors (for both the hero and herione).  Much emphasis is placed on the sexual intrigue of Daphnis and Chloe and its seeming  (perhaps false) innocence.  The comparison to Leukippe and Clitophon proves this, as that ancient novel is much more openly violent and overtly sexual than Daphnis and Chloe.  The article is careful to point out, though, that while the differences in the two plots are countless, the portrayal of the heroine as a pitiful land trauma ridden maiden is present in both.  (Kelly Blanchfield)

Morgan, J. R. (1994)  Daphnis and Chloe: Love’s Own Sweet Story.  In J. R. Morgan, ed., Greek Fiction: The Greek Novel in Context.  London: Routledge.  

This article discusses the main themes studied in Longus’ Daphnis and Chloe.  The interest in the pastoral writing exhibited in this novel has sparked the comparison between opposites throughout this story.  Some examples studied include, country versus city, innocence opposed to experience, peace and violence, sheep and wolves, nature and culture (p.73).  Mostly, all of the positive things are associated with pastoral living and the negative reveals the influences of an urban life.  And finally, the last thought Morgan explores is the difference between reality and fiction.  
     Morgan describes how Longus writes using a style that contrasts with other writers of this period.  For example his pastoral writing is different in itself but also because of the “unreality” that comes with it.  Longus writes in a world where everything is beautiful, peaceful, and innocent, where the only thing that matters is love with lack of adventure.  In reality, it is in fact very tough agriculturally to maintain a country life as a herdsman and shepherdess (p. 65).  Also, instead of the norm in romantic novels where the man and woman fall in love at first sight and go through all types of drama until they finally reunite, Daphnis and Chloe are described exactly the opposite.  This couple grows up together as friends long before ever realizing what love is.  They are totally naïve of feelings and sexual desires and never leave their hometown of Lesbos.  In contrast, the city girl, “wolfie” Lykainion, is cultured and experienced and teaches Daphnis how to have intercourse with Chloe.  These are some examples of the opposites introduced above. 
     With reference to country versus city, Morgan mentions how within the novel everything associated with the city is a threat against the country scene surrounding the hero and heroine.  The Methymnians come in and cause problems for the country dwellers.  “The city-dwelling landowner brings parasitism, sexual deviance and the threat of separation in his train” (p. 71).  Chloe is described as having more beauty after she has “dressed in city finery”(p. 69).  Morgan comments, “The material wealth of the city-folk has no place in the jolly poverty of the land” (p. 71).  
     The evidence from which these ideas come are partly based on comparison of other novels of the time, as well as another pastoral writing, Idylls of Theokritos.  Longus makes reference to this throughout Daphnis and Chloe.  This article reaches out to undergraduate students and other audiences with equal education and a familiarization with Longus’ Daphnis and Chloe. (Carrie Lefler)

Reardon, B. P. (1994).  Achilles Tatius and Ego-Narrative.  In J. R. Morgan, ed., Greek Fiction: The Greek Novel in Context.  London: Routledge. 

Reardon, B. P. Longus' lesbian pastorals.  In 

B.P. Reardon examines several different elements of Longus’ Daphnis and Chloe, such as various interpretations, the classification of the work itself, Longus’ intentions, and the novel’s seriousness, structure, plot and meaning. 
    Reardon studies whether or not Daphnis and Chloe should be considered a serious piece of writing.  It is clear that Reardon believes it to be non-serious due to lack of action, realism, and structure.  He characterizes some portions of the novel as “limited and undeveloped” (137), and at times, Reardon says that Longus “limps” (146).  Reardon criticizes the portrayal of love as a series of experiments between Longus’ two young lovers; he seems perturbed by the fact that their experimentation with sex ultimately leads them nowhere, thus retarding the opportunity for any sort of plot progression.  At the end of the article, however, Reardon reveals the small bit of seriousness that he feels does in fact reside within Longus’ words—Love.  “Love’s operation” (137), “its birth, growth and nature” (138) are the subject matter, not Daphnis and Chloe.  In this respect, Reardon makes several comparisons to writers contemporary with Longus—Achilles Tatius and Xenophon.  All three of these authors portray love in their heroines in varying degrees (with Longus almost completely ignoring its course within his heroines).
    A second major focus of Reardon’s in this article is the intermingling of the idyllic and realistic world.  In his opinion, Longus had just enough realism in his writing to captivate his audience, while the brunt of the action was almost entirely idealistic.  Reardon comments on the choice of setting in Daphnis and Chloe.  He points out that social positions and structures are adequately depicted by Longus, as well as the physical picture he paints for his readers; the actual city and the people that live in it and come from it are an important realistic element, according to Reardon, which Longus succeeds in including. 
    Ultimately, Reardon, concludes that Longus did what he said he was going to do in his proem to the novel: “remind him who has loved, and instruct him who has not” (146).  (L. Rhodes)

Said, Susan (1994).  The City in the Greek Novel.  In James Tatum, ed.  The Search for the Ancient Novel.  Johns Hopkins University Press. 

    “The City in the Greek Novel” is an article that describes the many different ways that cities are portrayed in Ancient Greek novels.  Some of the literature discussed in the article includes Chareas and Callirhoe, Aethiopica, Daphnis and Chloe, and Leucippe and Clitophon.  Some knowledge of the geography, history, and literature of the Greek world is needed to fully understand this article; therefore, I believe it was written for students and professors who are familiar with the area. 
    According to Said, the view of the city is an important element in Greek novels.  Not only does it serve as a landscape or background for the novel, but it also gives us insight into the social world  shown in the Greek novel. First of all, Said describes how cities are important for creating a setting in time and a location.  Some novels, such as Chaereas and Callirhoe, for example, are historical novels, whereas some, like Leucippe and Clitophon are contemporary novels, and the description of the cities in these novels often reflect the time period and setting.  Cities also serve as landmarks in ancient Greek novels, especially when the heroes are traveling, as they often do in Greek novels.  The buildings in the city, such as its walls, harbors, temples, gymnasia, and palaces can tell us much about the city’s physical looks as well as its society.  For example, the temples  serve as a landmark and also represent the importance of religion in ancient Greek novels.  Often, some sort of drama takes place there: women run there when in fear of being raped, and the heroes are always stopping at temples to pray and make sacrifices.  Finally, Said explains how cities serve as a functional setting, archaizing scenery, and tourist attractions.  In Daphnis and Chloe, for example, the prologue opens with the narrator, who is a tourist, describing the beautiful scene of Mytilene.  (Leslie Davis)

Sandy, Gerald N. (1999a).  Apuleius' Golden Ass: from Miletus to Egypt.  In Heinz Hofmann, ed.  Latin Fiction: The Latin Novel in Context.  London and New York: Routledge.

Sandy, Gerald N. (1999b).  The Tale of Cupid and Psyche.  In Heinz Hofmann, ed.  Latin Fiction: The Latin Novel in Context.  London and New York: Routledge.

Sandy discusses the story from within The Golden Ass, Cupid and Psyche.  This article compares the “spiritual progress” of Lucius and Psyche.  While Psyche longs for love, and falls into a trap by falling in love with Love itself, Lucius longs to experience something more than his life, and ends up becoming a donkey.  Also, Sandy argues that because Lucius and Psyche go through these trials and tribulations, they will some how become divine afterwards or gain spiritual strength.  Sandy lists a passage from Apuleius in which he describes how Venus is a goddess not only to man but to animals also.  Sandy could be referring to the metaphorical idea of Venus; she represents the hidden lust within us all.   
    Both  Lucius and Psyche undergo “loss of identity caused by unrestrained curiosity, quest for it in the face of malign Fortune and its restoration by divine grace in union with God.”  This article is overall trying to explain how the story of Lucius and of Psyche are processes that every human being must go through some time in their lives.  One could compare this to any instance in his or her life. This article shows the simplicity of stories like The Golden Ass and Cupid and Psyche.  When people suffer, they eventually can pull themselves out of their suffering and ultimately reach a higher level of spiritual strength. This article could be aimed at groups of ancient novel scholars, but these stories would be easily identified with by the youth, for the necessary venture through despair they must go through to reach some form of inner strength.  (Catherine Inglesby)

Schlam, Carl C. (1992).  The Metamorphses of Apuleius:  On making an ass of oneself.  University of North Carolina Press.

Schmeling, Gareth (1999a).   The History of Apollonius King of Tyre.  In Heinz Hofmann, ed.  Latin Fiction: The Latin Novel in Context.  London and New York: Routledge.

Schmelling, Gareth (1999b).  Petronius and the Satyrica.  In Heinz Hofmann, ed.  Latin Fiction: The Latin Novel in Context.  London and New York: Routledge.

Shumate, Nancy (1999).  Apuleius' Metamorphoses: the inserted tales.  In Heinz Hofmann, ed.  Latin Fiction: The Latin Novel in Context.  London and New York: Routledge.

Stephens, Susan A (1994).  Who read ancient Novels?  In James Tatum, ed.  The Search for the Ancient Novel.  Johns Hopkins University Press.

    In this article, Stephens attempts to answer the question, “Who read ancient novels?”  The article might be difficult for the general reader.  Some background knowledge is needed to attain a good understanding of the material, so it may be most useful for graduate students and professors. 
    This article discusses some of the theories explaining the number and type of people who read ancient novels.  To explain this, Stephens examines whether or not widespread and popular readership during ancient times existed, or the extent to which did exist.  She also considers the books themselves when trying to describe the ancient reader because the content and complexity of the novel gives us clues about the education and sophistication of the reader.  
    When discussing the readership of the ancient novel, Stephens analyzes the theory of a literate middle class, possibly early Christians or moderately wealthy traders.  However, Stephens comes to the conclusion that due to economic and cultural barriers, only the upper class had the time and money to read ancient novels.  Even in the literate population, there were significant differences in reading levels.  For example, some received only grammatical education, while the more fortunate went on to receive rhetorical education.  Further information about the social and economic status of the ancient reader can be gathered by examining the formats and writing styles of the ancient novel fragments.  For example, the elegant calligraphy found in many finely copied novels further suggests the wealth of the ancient reader.  
    When looking at the popularity of ancient novels, Stephens suggests that the  sheer numbers of manuscripts found can give us clues.  For example, many of copies of the Iliad and Odyssey can be found because they were often used in education.  We can also compare these numbers to other documents written during the time, such as religious writing and fiction.  For example, Stephens compares the number of philosophical texts, such as Plato and Demosthenes, to the number of novels by writers such as Achilles Tatius and Lucian.  (Leslie Davis)

Stoneman, Richard (1994).  The Alexander Romance: From History to Fiction.  In J. R. Morgan, ed., Greek Fiction: The Greek Novel in Context.  London: Routledge.

Stoneman, Richard (1999).  The Latin Alexander.  In Heinz Hofmann, ed.  Latin Fiction: The Latin Novel in Context.  London and New York: Routledge. 

Toohey, Peter (1992).  Reading Epic: An introduction to ancient narratives.  London and New York: Routledge.  

Chapter One
Toohey starts by defining an epic as a long narrative written in hexameters that concentrates on the fortunes or actions of a great hero or civilization. The hero’s relationship with the gods also plays a very important role.  He goes on to say that epics are generally divided into two major types:  oral (or primary), such as The Odyssey, and literate (or secondary) such as The Aeneid.  Oral epics are passed down though word of mouth and often have many reoccurring direct quotes.  Stories and relations may vary. Literate or written epics are copied down and the manuscript is handed through generations. 
    Toohey then breaks epic into subgenres.  The first one he introduces is a mythological epic such as Iliad and Jason and the Golden Fleece.  This type of epic is a narrative concerning heroic actions of mythological heroes.  It is primarily focused upon the relationships between the hero and divine powers.  There is also a glorification of past eras that can be either positive or negative.
    Another type of epic Toohey defines is miniature epic.  This one is shorter in length and has a focus largely on love.  A chronicle epic is one that has historical grounds.  It has a long time frame that generally focused on the fortunes of a single city or region rather than an individual hero.  The heroes and battles are historically based and have a reasonable claim to historical veracity.  Commentary epic is also based on wars and generals but has a shorter time frame.  He also briefly introduces the didactic (or teaching) and comic epic.  The humor of the comic epic is found through irony and parody.
    Toohey lists and discusses themes that he finds common to all epics regardless of the subgenre.  All contain heroes, either mythological or real who have a superior station in society.   The heroes fight out of response to a crisis situation and usually undergo a moral maturation after a personal tragedy.  The relationship of the heroes and parental figures is stressed as well as their relation to the gods.  Religion plays a very important role in epic and it often greatly influences the hero in his travels.  There is also a glorification of the past eras, either negative or positive. 
    Toohey uses history and written works as evidence to his claims.  He presents definitions and outlines of works and shows how they fit into the mold he has outlined.  His style was informative, easy to understand and follow, probably written for an undergraduate student with a moderate background in mythology.  (Kristen Laliberte)

Chapter Four: Apollonius of Rhodes, Argonautica

    Toohey begins by describing the city of Alexandria, providing historical and geographical evidence for this story.  He then summarizes the myth with which Apollonius creates his epic tale.  Agronautica has five major sections:  1) the selection of Jason as a leader and the departure, 2) sojourn on Lemnos with Hypsipyle, 3) events on Cyzicus, 4) rape of Hylas, and 5) the abandonment of Hercules.  Though the events seem disjointed and sporadic, the major theme of the quest of the fleece ties it all in.  Love, friendship and the abuse of it, betrayal and respect for the gods also run though out and help hold everything together. 
    Toohey also points out that Jason is an atypical epic hero.  He is not perfect; he’s morally flawed and also gets depressed, probably due to his frequent isolation.  But the fact that he was chosen as a leader over Hercules is very important.  It serves to reinforce the importance of solidarity and unity.  Hercules is more of an individual while Jason is dependent and helps the crew to work together to accomplish their task.  
    Toohey explains the long catalogue of characters by saying it introduces the reader to the main players.  It also provides geographical and genealogical background for the story.  He remarks that solidarity is important as well and this long list serves to emphasize the unity of the crew.
    The gods play a very important role in this tale.  Not only do they directly assist the hero, they influence others as well.  Eros causes Medea to fall in love with Jason and through her knowledge of herbs and potions, Jason is able to escape and defeat whatever or whoever is necessary.  The gods also supply prophets with visions and knowledge that is relayed to Jason and his crew. These visions help them survive the voyage.
    Toohey notes that love and betrayal is a strongly reoccurring theme.  Medea’s love for Jason is greater than her love for others around her, including her own father; and it drives her to betray him, many other relatives and people to aid Jason.
    Toohey outlines and discusses this story in great detail.  He uses historical and geographical evidence to create an explanation and understanding for the creation of the tale.  He shows that in many ways, this is a standard epic that has many of the general characteristics with a few deviations.  The greatest deviation is probably the casting of the hero.  Jason is effective but not typical.  Toohey’s discussion was informative but easy to understand.  It also seemed to be written on the level an undergraduate student with some understanding of and background in mythology could easily follow.  (Kristen Laliberte)

Winkler, John J. (1994).  The Invention of Romance.  In James Tatum, ed.  The Search for the Ancient Novel.  Johns Hopkins University Press.

John Winkler wrote the article “The Invention of Romance” to challenge his readers. While the collection of “The Search for the Ancient Novel” was composed for a higher level of educated readers, Winkler posed his questions to a higher standard; antiquity specialists. The main theme in the article is romance in ancient novels. The question is, how did romance begin and 
to whom did the idea of romance appeal? Even though scholars have made many specific observations and hypotheses, the present day readers may never know.  There certainly are plenty of novels through which to study these issues.  In some examples, such as Aenianes goes to Delphi, Leucippe and Clitophon, and Chaereas and Callirhoe, the idea of two young beautiful citizens (usually one male and one female) fall for Eros. Eros is not only the idea 
of love, but it includes love, lust, passions, longing, and marriage. For ancient Greece, novels were written around the “love and marriage” concept.  The novel could not be completed unless the two lovers married. And the love for the two could not be consummated until after marriage.  Winkler then states that there are only two sources through out history and into the present day which deal with this issue: love stories/love poems, and the discussions over hundreds of years including philosophers and professors. All have come to the same conclusion. No matter how it is present, love at first sight, like with Theagenes and Chariclea, love through waiting, like Daphnis and Chloe, or love through humor as presented in Michel Foucault’s “Sexualite”, it always comes back to the idea of true Eros. True Eros as the love of one another and how it is kept pure before marriage, and even better after consummation.  Ancient audiences would have felt a void in the novel if it did not include all the Eros elements.  (Laura DeMoe)

Zeitlin, Froma I.  Gardens of Desire in Longus' Daphnis and Chloe: Nature, Art and Imitation.  In James Tatum, ed.  The Search for the Ancient Novel.  Johns Hopkins University Press.

This article focuses on the connections between nature, art, and imitation found in Longus’ Daphnis and Chloe.  Zeitlin extensively discusses the ekphrasis the author uses in this novel and how it directly relates to the storyline.  For example, in the beginning of the novel the author is fascinated by a painting and is so mesmerized by the beauty of it that he is compelled to write the story that is known to us as Daphnis and Chloe.  Zeitlin continues to explain the idea of art imitating nature and vice versa by concentrating on the following ideas: proem, imitation, gardens, erotics, aesthetics, and rhetorics of Eros (pp. 150-165).
     The symbolism between the two gardens within the novel, that of the old man Philetus, and the garden of the estate master Dionysophanes, is compared here with the growth of Daphnis and Chloe’s relationship.  The bigger garden towards the end of the novel, also described as a work of art, is symbolic of the maturity of the couple’s relationship and how prepared they are for matrimony.  Zeitlin describes this as being the grandest ekphrasis of all, the tensions between urban and rural in art and love. 
     Yet another element Zeitlin mentions is Longus’ use of mimesis, “competing with the power of pictorial images through verbal means” (p. 151).  Mimesis is primarily explained in the idea of imitation throughout Daphnis and Chloe.  “As the narrator imitates the painting, and the narrative works its mimetic effects on its readers, so the premise of the work is that children learn about eros through mimesis” (p. 153). 
     The article continues to analyze art, nature, and imitation with discussion of gardens, characters, and the god Eros.  The evidence from which these ideas are argued is based on literary theory and analysis of ekphrasis and mimesis used by Longus within the novel.  An audience with significant literary background and familiarity with Greek terminology would best understand this article.  (Carrie Lefler)