Spartan Women

by Elizabeth Hailey

 

 
Sparta: Lithograph by Carl Hoffmann (1870), courtesy Petra Fine Art

 

 

Introduction

The ancient Spartans did not provide a written account of their own history; thus, the information modern scholars have relative to this society has come, for the part, from other ancient Greek historians like Plutarch, Xenophon, and Aristotle. In as much as these ancient scholars were more familiar with the traditional roles and lifestyles of women in ancient Athens, their views of the robust and active lifestyles of Spartan women appear, in some respects, to be less than favorable. The description of Spartan women in terms of their "otherness" does not seem too dissimilar to the accounts given by the ancient historians relative to the non-traditional lifestyle of the Amazons. At first glance there may appear to be some similarities between Spartan women and the Amazons; however, their roles within their respective societies were actually quite different and their does not appear to be definitive evidence that the ancient historians viewed them in the same context. The subsequent sections provide basic information relative to the lifestyle and the role of women living in the militaristic society of ancient Sparta and, further, points to the differences between Spartan women and the Amazons.

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Education of Spartan Women

From early childhood, the Spartan women of archaic and classical antiquity were educated and trained for their primary purpose – that of becoming mothers of strong and vital Spartan sons and warriors. Based on reforms attributed to the legendary lawgiver, Lycurgis, the education of Spartan girls came under the auspices of the state-supported educational system that incorporated physical training and fitness along with cultural instruction.  The state often employed poets like Alcman to oversee their cultural education that included poetry on the subjects of Spartan legends as well as social and religious customs, choral recitations, dance, and music with competition in these areas being encouraged. In addition Spartan girls were encouraged to speak in public and be assertive; and, as women, they were known to be rather out-spoken. There is indication that, at least, some Spartan women were literate; and, according to Alcman and Aristophanes, Sparta produced several female poets and philosophers like Megalostrata and Cleitagoia. Music was very much a part of their religious festivals; therefore they learned to sing and perform dances suck as the “bibasis” in which girls would kicked up their heels behind them striking their posteriors – some later philosophers found this activity amusing if not less than proprietary.  In order to later supervise a household and perform ritual weaving for religious purposes, Spartan girls were instructed in weaving and domestic duties although these were not tasks they routinely performed. (Blundell, 1995, 151; Fantham, 1994, 57-63; Pomeroy, 1975, 36; Pomeroy, 2002, 4-27)

The Spartan physical education of girls included running and wrestling as well as discus and javelin throwing; however, it did not include training for combat.  Inasmuch as the Spartans were known for their exceptional horses, there is some indication that Spartan girls were not only knowledgeable in the breeding and training of horses but rode horseback and drove small horse-driven carts.  For example, Cynisca, a wealthy Spartan woman and daughter of King Archelaus, II, although not allowed to personally compete, was known to have entered her horses and chariot jockey in the Olympic games of 396 B.C. and 392 B.C. winning both competitions – the first woman to do so – and having a statue erected at Olympia in honor of her and her team.  Athletic competition for girls for the most part was confined to religious festivals; yet, one such competition – the Heraea - was devised along the lines of the men’s Olympic competition and held every four years in honor of female deities.  There is some question as to whether Spartan girls performed their physical exercises in the nude; however, it is known that they wore a Dorian-style “peplos” or tunic that was slit along the side exposing their bare thighs but affording them freedom of movement. After marriage many Spartan women continued to exercise and stay fit; however, the primary function during the next phase of their lives was to bear strong warriors for the Spartan state. (Blundell, 1995, 151; Fantham, 1994, 57-63; Pomeroy, 1975, 36; Pomeroy, 2002, 4-27)  

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Excerpts from the Primary Sources

 “‘For it was not by imitating other states, but by devising a system utterly different from that of most others, that he [Lycurgus] made his country prosperous…he insisted on physical training for the female no less than for the male sex: moreover, he instituted races and trials of strength for women competitors as for men, believing that if both parents are strong they produce more vigorous offspring…’” (Xenophon, 4th century B.C., Constitution of the Lacedaemonians 1.3-1.4 translation provided in Fantham, 1994, 61)

“‘…Lycurgus, rather, showed all possible concern for them too.  First he toughened the girls physically by making them run and wrestle and throw the discus and javelin.  Thereby their children in embryo would make a strong start in strong bodies and would develop better, while the women themselves would also bear their pregnancies with vigor and would meet the challenge of childbirth in a successful, relaxed way.  He did away with prudery, sheltered upbringing, and effeminacy of any kind.  He made young girls no less than young men grow used to walking nude in processions, as well as to dancing and signing at certain festivals with the young men present and looking on.  On some occasions the girls would make fund of each of the young men, helpfully criticizing their mistakes.  On other occasions they would rehearse in song the praises which they had composed about those meriting them, so that they filled the youngsters with great sense of ambition and rivalry…There was nothing disreputable about the girls’ nudity.  It was altogether modest, and there was not hint of immorality.  Instead it encouraged simple habits and an enthusiasm for physical fitness, as well as giving the female sex a taste of masculine gallantry, since it too was granted equal participation in both excellence and ambition.  As a result the women came to talk as well as to think…’” (Plutarch, 2nd century A.D., Life of Lycurgus 14.1-4 translation in Fantham, 1994, 62)

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Marriage and Sexuality of Spartan Women

Under the Spartan educational system, boys left home and entered male communal life at age seven to pursue their military training and girls lived at home with their mothers from birth until after their marriage and first pregnancy.  Although segregated to some extent, Spartan boys and girls had opportunities for interaction at choral performances, ritual processions, and athletic performances in which the girls were scantily glad or nude. According to Plutarch, it was not for a lack of modesty or an indication of lewd behavior on the part of Spartan girls that they performed dances and exercises in thigh-baring tunics but more out of pride in their athletic bodies.  Marriages were generally arranged between families; however, the bride and groom often knew each other.  The average age for Spartan women to marry was age eighteen and was in keeping with the Spartan philosophy that maturity was essential to producing healthy and robust offspring.  In preparation of the marriage, the bride was dressed like a young male with hair cropped short possibly to denote the transition in the female’s role in Spartan society. The marriage was consummated during a symbolic abduction of the bride. After marriage, the bride continued to live in her paternal home usually until her first pregnancy and the groom lived in the men’s communal barracks until he attained age thirty.  Before the husband could live openly with his wife, the couple arranged secret meetings for the purpose of having sexual intercourse.  According to Xenophon, this custom limited sexual contact between the husband and wife thus heightening sexual desire and increasing potency that the Spartans believed produced healthier offspring. (Blundell, 1995, 151-153; Fantham, 1994, 57-63; Pomeroy, 1975, 37-38; Pomeroy, 1991, 142; Pomeroy, 2002, 39-44; Seltman, 1955, 80-81)

In Spartan society, marriage was primarily for the purpose of producing healthy offspring for the state.  Xenophon and Plutarch reported that Spartan husbands often shared their wives with another man in order to produce more children.  It was considered acceptable for an older man with a young wife to grant permission for a younger man to have sexual intercourse with her as a means of begetting more physically fit children. In addition, a Spartan man, who wanted children but did not want to enter into a marriage arrangement, could request permission of a woman’s husband to share her sexually.  There is no indication that the Spartan women objected to such arrangements; and, since many Spartan women owned land as well as managed the household, they may have seen it as an opportunity to supervise a second household; and, after all, a married woman’s duty in Spartan society was to beget and rear strong children for the state. Regardless of the motivations, it does appears that some ancient historians like Plutarch saw these Spartan customs being the reason adultery, illegitimacy and prostitution did not exist in Sparta. (Blundell, 1995, 151-155; Pomeroy, 1975, 34-42; Pomeroy, 1991, 142-144; Seltman, 1955, 57-63)

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Excerpts From The Primary Sources

“’…Lycurgus thought the labor of slave women sufficient to supply clothing.  He believed motherhood to be the most important function of freeborn women…He noticed, too, that, during the time immediately succeeding marriage, it was usual elsewhere for the husband to have unlimited intercourse with his wife.  The rule that he adopted was the opposite of this for he laid it down that the husband should be ashamed to be seen entering his wife’s room or leaving it.  With this restriction on intercourse the desire of the one for the other must necessarily be increased, and their offspring was bound to be more vigorous than if they were surfeited with one another.  In addition to this, he withdrew from men the right to take a wife whenever they chose, and insisted on their marrying in the prime of their manhood, believing that this too promoted the production of fine children.  It might happen, however, that an old man had a young wife; and he observed that old men keep a very jealous watch over their young wives.  To meet these cases he instituted an entirely different system by requiring the elderly husband to introduce into his house some man whose physical and moral qualities he admired, in order to beget children.  On the other hand, in case a man did not want to cohabit with his wife and nevertheless desired children of whom he could be proud, he made it lawful for him to choose a woman who was the mother of a fine family and of high birth, and if the obtained her husband’s consent, to make her the mother of his children.

He gave his sanction to many similar arrangements.  For the wives want to take charge of two households, and the husbands want to get brothers for their sons, brothers who are members of the family and share in its influence, but claim no part of the money.’” (Xenophon, 4th century B.C., Constitution of the Lacedaemonians, 1.5-9 translated in Fantham, 1994, 61)

“’There were then also these inducements to marry.  I mean the processions of girls, and the nudity, and the competitions which the young men watched, attracted by a compulsion not of an intellectual type, but (as Plato says) a sexual one.  In addition Lycurgus placed a certain civil disability on those who did not marry, for they were excluded from the spectacle of the Symnopaediae…The custom was to capture women for marriage–not when they were slight and immature, but when they were in their prime and ripe for it.  The so-called ‘bridesmaid’ took charge of the captured girl.  She first shaved her hair to the scalp, then dressed her in a man’s cloak and sandals, and laid her down alone on a mattress in the dark.  The bridegroom-who was not drunk and thus not impotent, but was sober as always - first had dinner in the messes, then would slip in, undo her belt, lift her and carry her to the bed.  After spending only a short time with her, he would depart discreetly so as to sleep wherever he usually did along with the other young men.  And this practice continued to be his practice thereafter:  while spending the days with his contemporaries, and going to sleep with them, he would warily visit his bride in secret, ashamed and apprehensive in case someone in the house might notice him.  His bride at the same time devised schemes and helped to plan how they might meet each other unobserved at suitable moments.  It was not just for a short period that young men would do this, but for long enough that some might even have children before they saw their own wives in daylight.  Such intercourse was not only an exercise in self-control and moderation, but also meant that partners were fertile physically, always free for love, and ready for intercourse rather than being sated and pale from unrestricted sexual activity.  Moreover some lingering glow of desire and affection was always left in both…’” (Plutarch, 2nd century A.D., Life of Lycurgus, 15.1-5 translated in Fantham, 1994, 62-63)

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Motherhood and Children in Ancient Sparta

For a woman in ancient Sparta, motherhood was of primary importance. For much of its five hundred year history, Sparta was at war; thus, in this militaristic society, it was a woman’s duty to bear and rear healthy children in particular strong and brave sons to serve in the Spartan army.  The woman’s role in Spartan society was viewed by the state as equal in importance to that of a man’s. So important was the role of motherhood that mothers with numerous sons were afforded special status and those dieing in childbirth were the only women for whom markers were placed on their graves.  Inasmuch as men in Spartan society were generally absent from the home in the early years of marriage and because of their military occupation, the care of children was for the most part left in the hands of the mother.  Since girls remained at home until their marriages, they may have had more opportunity for contact with their fathers especially if their fathers were older. As boys resided at home only until age seven, contact with their fathers would have been rare. Thus any emotional bonds that children may have formed during their early years would have primarily been with theirs mothers.  In ancient Sparta, mothers encouraged bravery in their sons and did not tolerate cowardice in battle nor did they mourn the loss of their sons in war. They took pride in the fact that their sons died in defense of Sparta and were known to kill their sons who had displayed signs of fear during battle. (Blundell, 1995, 151 & 157; Pomeroy, 2002, 34-37 & 52-69)

Based on Lycurgus’ reforms, Spartans felt that it was essential for children to be born healthy in order to grow up strong and robust.  In keeping with the requirement that children be healthy from birth, Spartan girls were trained in physical activity and exercise for the purpose of building physically fit bodies in order to produce strong offspring. In addition, women, in particular those who were pregnant or nursing, were allotted the same type and amount of food as their husbands.  To determine the health of a child at birth, the elders of the community examined newborn babies, in particular male babies, to access their physical fitness. Those found to be unfit were abandoned to die so as not to place a drain on the state’s responsibility for their upbringing and to eliminate those males who would likely be unfit for the rigors of military life.  Although girls are not necessarily mentioned with regard to this custom, it is quite possible that they too were inspected at birth to determine their fitness.  There is no indication that Spartan mothers objected to this custom; and, considering their devotion to the Spartan way of life, it is unlikely they would have. (Blundell, 1995, 151 & 157; Pomeroy, 2002, 34-37 & 52-69)

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Excerpts from the Primary Sources

“’The father did not decide whether to raise a baby; rather he took it and carried it to some place called Lesche where the elders of the tribes sat and examined the infant, and if it was well built and sturdy, they ordered the father to rear it, and assigned it one of the nine thousand lots of land; but if it was ill born and misshapen, they sent it to the so-called ‘Apothetae,’ a chasm-like place at the foot of Mount Taygetus, thinking that any baby which was not naturally created at the very beginning to be healthy and strong was of no good either to itself or the state.  Therefore the women used to bathe their newborn babies not with water but with wine, thus making a sort of test of their constitutions.  For it is said that epileptic and sickly infants are thrown into convulsions by the unmixed wine and lose their senses, while the healthy ones are rather hardened by it, and given a strong constitution.’”  (Plutarch, Life of Lycurgus, 16.1-2 translated in Pomeroy, 2002, 34-35)

“’Because Damatria heard that her son was a coward and not worthy of her, she killed him when he arrived.  This is the epigram about her: His mother killed Damatrius who broke, the laws, She a Spartan lady, he a Spartan Youth.’”  (Plutarch, Sayings of Spartan Women, 240.f2)

“’Another Spartan woman killed her son, who had deserted his post because he was unworthy of Sparta.  She declared:  ‘He was not my offspring…for I did not bear one unworthy of Sparta.’” (Plutarch, Sayings of Spartan Women, 241.1)

“’Another, hearing that her son had fallen at his post, said:  ‘Let the cowards be mourned.  I, however, bury you without a tear, my son and Sparta’s.’” (Plutarch, Sayings of Spartan Women, 241.2)

“’As a woman was burying her son, a shabby old woman came up to her and said, ‘You poor woman, what a misfortune!’ ‘No, by the two goddesses, what a good fortune,’ she replied, ‘because I bore him so that he might die for Sparta, and that is what has happened for me.’” (Plutarch, Sayings of Spartan Women, 241.8)

“’Another woman handed her son his shield, and exhorted him: ‘Son, either with this or on this.’” (Plutarch, Sayings of Spartan Women, 241.16)

(Plutarch, Savings of Spartan Women, 240.f2-241.16 translations in Pomeroy, 2002, 59-60)

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Wealth, Property Ownership, and Power of Spartan Women

Although during the archaic and classical periods Sparta did not have a coinage system and women were prohibited from possessing gold and silver, Spartan women were known to be wealthy - a wealth derived from property ownership.  Writing in the fourth century B.C., Aristotle indicated that, by the fifth century B.C., Spartan women owned two-fifths of the land.  They acquired land through inheritance of at least a portion of the estates of their parents the same as their brothers as well as through marriage. Although there is some debate, a dowry that consisted of a portion of a woman’s family inheritance may have been presented to her as a pre-death inheritance at the time she married.  Spartan women had the right to manage, control, and dispose of the land they owned as well as retain any income it produced.  If married she shared the income produced from her own land with her husband and, by the same token, he shared the income from his land with her. In addition, women were permitted to retain their land in those rare cases of divorce. Spartan women did not perform domestic duties but rather supervised and managed the household slaves (helots) who were responsible for these duties. It was not uncommon for Spartan women to own, breed and train fine race horses which served as an example of their wealth. Their independence would have certainly been enhanced by their ability to ride horses and drive carts and afforded them to opportunity to survey and manage their country estates.  (Blundell, 1995, 155-157; Pomeroy, 1975, 38; Pomeroy, 1991, 144; Pomeroy, 2002, 19-34 & 76-86)

In ancient Sparta, women were known to be incredibly forthright and to hold the dominant position in the household.  Although unusual in antiquity, the influence and relative power of Spartan women may have been the result of their individual wealth, the frequent absences of their warrior husbands and an educational system that encouraged them to express themselves.  However, there is no indication they were eligible to hold governmental positions or to vote; yet, Spartan women were known to offer their opinions on public matters.  As indicated by some of the ancient historians, it was generally felt that Spartan women dominated their husbands – a matter Spartan women themselves attributed to their ability to produce sons.  Certainly, the influence of Spartan mothers over their sons can be demonstrated by their extreme expectations of bravery.  Aristotle criticized the wealth, power and influence of Spartan women as contributing to Sparta’s ultimate decline.(Blundell, 1995, 155-157; Pomeroy, 1991, 144-149; Pomeroy, 2002, 56-93)  

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Excerpts from the Primary Sources

“‘When a woman from Attica asked ‘Why is it that you Spartans are the only women who can rule men?’  Gorgo replied, ‘Because we are the only ones who give birth to men.’”  (Plutarch, Sayings of Spartan Women, 240.5 translated in Pomeroy, 2002, 60)

“‘The licence of the Lacedaemonian women defeats the intention of the Spartan constitution, and is adverse to good order of the State.  For a husband and a wife, being each a part of every family, the state may be considered as about equally divided into men and women; and, therefore, in those states in which the condition of the woman is bad, half the city may be regarded as having no laws.  And this is what has actually happened at Sparta; the legislator wanted to make the whole state hardy and temperate, and he has carried out his intention in the case of the men, but he has neglected the women, who live in every sort of intemperance and luxury.  The consequence is that in such a state wealth is too highly valued, especially if the citizens fall under the dominion of their wives…the influence of the Lacedaemonian women has been most mischievous…when Lycurgus, as tradition says, wanted to bring the women under his laws, they resisted, and he gave up the attempt.  They, and not he, are to blame for what then happened, and this defect in the constitution is clearly to be attributed to them.  We are not, however, considering what is or is not to be excused, but what is right or wrong, and the disorder of the women…not only of itself gives an air of indecorum to the state, but tends in a measure to foster avarice.’” (Aristotle, Politics, 1269b12 translated in Lefkowitz and Fant, 1982, 39-40)

“‘The mention of avarice naturally suggests a criticism of the inequality of property.  While some of the Spartan citizens have quite small properties, others have very large ones; hence the land has passed into the hands of a few.  And here is another fault in their laws; for, although the legislator rightly holds up to shame the sale or purchase of an inheritance, he allows anybody who likes to give and bequeath it.  Yet both practices lead to the same result.  And nearly two-fifths of the whole country are held by women; this is owing to the number of heiresses and to the large dowries which are customary.  It would surely have been better to have given no dowries at all, or, if any, but small or moderate ones…Hence, although the country is able to maintain 1,500 cavalry and 30,000 hoplites, the whole number of Spartans citizens fell below1,000…’” (Aristotle, Politics, 1270a15 translated in Lefkowitz and Fant, 1982, 40)  

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Comparison of Spartan Women with Amazons

Although the source materials relative Spartan women and Amazons do not specifically compare the two, there do appear to be some similarities between them; however, those similarities seem simply to be coincidental or circumstantial.  The Amazons are said to have lived in militaristic matriarchal cultures in which men were either absent except for those occasions in which they served a reproductive purpose or were a subservient part of the society in which they performed the domestic and childrearing duties.  According to the accounts of various ancient scholars like Justin, Strabo and Diodorus Siculus, males babies, if not killed, were mutilated in order to make them unfit for warfare or were given to the men of the neighboring societies with whom the Amazons had mated. On the other hand, girls were prized by the Amazons and trained from early childhood for a life as warriors – training that included working with horses, horseback riding, spear and javelin throwing, handling bows and arrows and in general physical activity that built strong bodies fit for combat. In addition, the right breasts of infant girls were seared so as to not impede their ability to use bows and arrows as they grew. Based on the portrayal of Amazons in ancient art, their clothing consisted of short tunics similar to those worn by the warrior and hunter gods and goddesses they were said to have worshipped like Ares, Artemis and Athena or loose oriental trousers similar to Persian warriors.  In general Amazons are depicted throughout the various accounts as outstanding female warriors living in societies in which they were in control of the wealth and in the positions of political dominance. It appears that Amazons symbolized for the Greeks the polar opposite of acceptable female behavior and were certainly considered to be relatively promiscuous. (Blundell, 1995, 58-62; Pomeroy, 1975, 23-25; Pomeroy, 2002, 32; Seltman, 1955, 97)

By contrast, Spartan women lived in a closed society that, although militaristic, was basically patriarchal.  In ancient Sparta women may have dominated their households and owned much of the private property as well as being wealthy in their own right; however, there is no indication that, other than being permitted to freely and publicly comment on political matters, they had any governmental authority.  Although they were considered to have had significant influence and control over their men folk, this appears to have been more in the domestic and economic arena as a result of inheritance customs, the frequent but not total absence of their husbands, and an educational system that emphasized their role in Spartan society.  Unlike the Amazons, the primary function of Spartan women was to produce strong children for the state in particular warrior sons – not warrior daughters – and their physical education and training was to enhance their ability to create strong children and to withstand childbirth not to create a female warrior society. The short skimpy tunics worn by Spartan women may have resembled those outfights depicted in ancient art as worn by Amazons; however, there is no mention of the physical mutilation of Spartan females. Spartan women honored goddesses like Artemis and Hera in ritualistic religious and athletic performances as it related to their roles as fertility and marital deities. Outside Sparta, Spartan women were looked upon as being rather immoral as a result of the wife-sharing custom, to bold and outspoken and, in general, criticized for not being the traditionally subservient female. (Blundell, 1995,151-157; Pomeroy, 1975, 32-39; Pomeroy, 2002, 4-27 & 34-69; Seltman, 1955, 80-83)

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