Bibliography

Scholarly Books and Articles

Becker, T. Harrington (1997). “Ambiguity and the Female Warrior: Vergil’s Camilla,” Electronic Antiquity (August 1997).
This article examines the character Camilla in Books 7 and 11 of Vergil’s Aeneid.  The article focuses on the sources of Camilla’s ambiguity and explaining these sources.  This article does not concentrate on Amazons solely and in fact only speaks of them in a few spots. Amazons are mentioned when Becker looks at the similarities and differences that Virgil creates between Camilla (the female warrior) and unorthodox women.  In the comparison Camilla and her women are explicitly described as Amazon-like.  Other descriptions include how in the middle of the slaughter she exulted “like an Amazon” and how with ornamented weapons they wage war “like Amazons.”  Becker interprets this description given by Vergil as Camilla’s women behaving as Penthesilea (the warrior princess) and Hippolyta do in battle.  For instance, they form lines of battle with crescent-shaped shields.  These are the only direct comparisons made in the article between Camilla and the Amazons.

Camilla is also described as having rejected the appropriate roles of wife and mother, thus making her outside the boundaries of society.  This allows her to escape the stereotypes and traditional roles prescribed for Roman women (keeping the house and working in wool).  Camilla is a soldier, and Vergil describes her in the terms of a fighter with masculine attributes (like both Aeneas and Turnus), skills, and even weapons. 

Becker used several literary sources in this article, including brief excerpts from poetry.  This article was hard to read at times and seemed to be geared toward scholars and serious researchers.

Kristin Jones

Bennett, Florence M. (1967). Religious Cults Associated with the Amazons. New York: AMS Press Inc.
Chapter???
The author makes mention of the various allusions to Amazons in some well known Greek works of literature and myth.  Most of these are such epic poems as Homer’s ‘Iliad’ and ‘The Odyssey’.   There are also references to obscure fragments of poetry that have all but disappeared over time, remaining nameless, with only the barest mention of Amazons.  Using the different snippets and fragments garnered from all these sources, the author differentiates between poetic exaggeration and actual historic fact about the Amazons and their interaction with the ancient Greeks.  The information specified, such as dates and places, is the most telling factor about what is factual and what is fiction.  The parts that are most likely to be exaggerated, says the author, are the elements that were most important to the particular writer: geography, romance, or politics.

Through this first chapter, it’s obvious that the author is expecting a very high level of education in the reader.  Various entire quotes are in Greek.  On a more general note, the vocabulary is heightened and very exacting.  One may need to keep a thesaurus handy to get the most out of what may be rather archaic text.  The original printing was much earlier than the last copyright date of 1967, so only the most dedicated students and patient scholars will be able to wade through the archaic language of the work. 

As previously mentioned, the author pulls from everything available on the topic, including the well known epics as well as the bits and fragments available only to those well-versed in either archeology or the Greek language.  There is a minor hint of scholarly speculation and guesswork, but the author is very careful to point these out.

The work is especially suited for those looking for specifics and the lesser known occasions of Amazonian interaction with the ancient Greeks.  Most of the information therein is not going to be found on modern websites, and so will offer new insight into characters not often mentioned in popular mythology.

Thomas Lamkin

Chapter 5.

Chapter five in Florence Bennet’s, Religious Cults Associated with the Amazons focuses on the Amazons’ relationship with the Greek war god, Ares. The legend of the Amazons was rooted not only in Athens, but also in memorials of the Amazons at Troezen, Megara, Chaeronea, Chalcis, and Thessaly.  It is believed that the Amazons may have worshipped the god Ares. The famous tragedian Aeschylus mentions the Amazons’ worship of Ares during their siege on Athens.  Pausanias describes the temple of Ares at Troezen as a trophy of the Victory of Theseus over the Amazons. Other Historians and writers such as Euripides and Herodutus have called the Amazons, “the children of Ares” or “the daughters of Ares.”  Arctinus called Penthesilea (an Amazon queen during the Trojan War)  a “Thracian” and a the daughter of Ares. This may have be the origin of the theory that the Amazons were the children of Ares.  Many modern authorities believe that the cult of Ares was of Thracian origin.  There are legends about the Amazons sacrificing horses to Ares. This may be the basis of the belief that the Amazons were skillful horsewomen.  Ares does not appear to be as important to the Amazons as the Mother (the goddess known as Rhea or Cybele). This chapter is very complex, and very detailed. It gives a lot of information pertaining to the Amazons and Ares, but she explains it for a scholarly audience in a complicated way, so that it is hard for the genereal reader to understand.

Audrey Germane

Blundell, Sue (1995).  “Chapter 5.”  In Women in Ancient Greece.  Cambridge: Harvard University Press.T

This book describes women’s roles in ancient Greece.  Sections within this book include ‘Women in Myth,’ ‘Women in the Archaic Period’ and ‘Women in the Classical Age’.

The Amazon chapter gives a summary of what history has deemed, the “Warrior Women.”  Giving a brief description of every part of an Amazon’s life, Blundell seems to be most focused on the lifestyle of the Amazons.  This includes at least one example of their sexual relations, lifestyle, occupations, their demise and more.  Although this chapter is short, it is compiled of personal interpretations as well as short quotations and indications to the primary sources, including Strabo, Homer and Diodorus Siculus.  Passages in the chapter include Herodotus’ infamous story of the Amazon’s mating scene with the Scythians.  Diodorus tells us on page 59 the Amazons had, “normal sex-roles rather than complete separatism.”  Blundell herself sums up the chapter saying, “The Amazons were outstanding fighters, and they conquered many nations, but in the end they were always beaten by Greeks” (61).

Blundell offers a good synopsis of the Amazonian way of life in only about three pages.  The chapter gives an excellent summary if you’re only interested in educating yourself on what Amazons were in general.  However, if you’re looking for longer direct quotes, examples, theories or hypothesis, it may be better to consult a source with a bit more specific information.

Lauren Oliver

Brown, Frieda and Wm. Blake Tyrrell. 1985.  A Reading of Herodotus’ Amazons.  The Classical Journal 80.4: 297-02.

This selection discusses Heodotus’ account of the Amazons and their relationship with the Scythians. The article talks about the writings of Herodotus concerning “having intercourse,” which is literally “getting tamed” in the original Greek.  Through these ideas of intercourse and taming, the authors attempt to understand the context as well as the meaning of Herodotus’ myth.

Brown and Tyrrell summarize, “Herodotus recounts his history of Amazons as an explanation for the strange practices of the Sauromatians.” We learn about young Greek men (through parallelism with the Scythians) and their involvement in sexual relationships, and attempt to tame the Amazons. The authors then talk about the role reversal of Scythian men who loose identity, because they are men but carry out women’s roles in society. The authors support the idea of the Amazons as untamable.

This article is helpful for people who are studying Herodotus and his language.  This is a very specialized article for scholarly audiences.

Dustin Watkins

Davis-Kimball, Jeanine.  Sauro-Sarmation Nomadic Women: New Gender Identities.  The Journal of Indo-European Studies.  Vol. 253/4 1997.  Pg.327-343.

This article outlines Davis-Kimball’s finds at her excavation of Sauro-Sarmation nomadic sites at Prokovka, in the Eurasian steppes.  The emphasis of this article is placed on the women of these tribes, because instead of being just domestic bodies the women were also warriors and priestesses.  These women did prepare the meals and fashion clothing, and were responsible for child care; but many of them also learned to ride horses, shoot bow and arrows, and even manage a short dagger, which has made scholars wonder if there is a link between them and the Amazon tribes the Greeks speak of.

The statuses of these women can be broken down in to three groups, defined by the artifacts found in their graves:  femininity and hearth, defined by imported luxury items; priestess of the clan, hearth or tribe, identified by objects with religious significance; and warrior, identified by armaments found with the body.  The most frequently found status was the femininity and hearth group.  Two women considered to be priestesses were found, one a young priestess and one who was older, and was considered a high priestess.  There were a variety of burials of women of the warrior status, including one woman whose grave contained over forty arrows tipped with bronze, and a bronze arrowhead in an amulet around her neck.  This would imply a very high status, and Davis-Kimball suggests that perhaps the elite young women of the tribes were the ones chosen from a young age to be warriors.

This article is easy to read, and would be good either for research or for someone interested in the subject of Saro-Saramation women and tribes.  There is no conclusive evidence however that these tribes were the Amazons or had any relation to the Amazons in Greek mythology. 

Megan Blaskovich

Davis-Kimball, Jeannine and Mona Behan (2002). Warrior Women:  An Archaeologist’s Search for History’s Hidden Heroines.

Chapter Four:  The Power of the Sword (p 50-66)

This chapter begins by presenting a short history of the Cimmerians, Scythians, and Sauromations using Herodotus as a main source.  This is very useful for those not very familiar with these cultures or their geographical locations.  The author, an archaeologist and professor, then goes into detail surrounding the excavation of several Sarmatian burials, all containing women and most containing some type of weaponry.  This, she concludes, means that these females were warriors, and onewas a priestess as well.  The items she found included bronze arrowheads, daggers, swords, shells, and also some “hearth woman” artifacts such as spindle whorls, beads, and earrings.  A “hearth woman” is a status given to women whose daily activities include household tasks such as spinning cloth and cooking.  A warrior’s activities on the other hand include physical training, tending to horses, and going to battle.  Because of these differences, it is easy for an archaeologist such as Davis-Kimball to make the conclusions that warrior women did exist within these societies.  This book as well as this chapter is useful as an introductory reading on these cultures but it only begins to scratch the surface of what these nomadic, warfaring people were really like. 

Pauline Shipley  

Chapter 5:The Power of the Spirit

Jeannine Davis-Kimball elaborates on the priestesses of nomadic tribes in chapter five of her book, Warrior Women.  “Occasionally, camels or horses were sacrificed at priestess burials, but we uncovered no evidence of human sacrifice at Pokrovka” (72).  There would sometimes be many artifacts in burials, which shows archaeologist the higher status of the priestess, or there would be few which could show a clan or cult priestess.  The differences in priestess status are easy to see because many burials have been preserved due to permafrost in the burials.  “A burial mound on the Ukok Plateau in southern Siberia that held a partially mummified fifth-century-B.C. Saka priestess who was about twenty-five years old when she was entombed.  Once again, permafrost had preserved many organic materials in the burial chambers” (79).  It is also thought that the clan would take the bodies of the deceased around on trips with them to show to others.  It was meant for others to pay respect.  Defleshing the bodies and sometimes mummifying them and then covering the bodies with herbs was another practice which helped preservation.  The Sauro-Sarmatians, the “Amazons” of the Middle East, had their own traditions and ways of life.

There was a gradual transition of priestess to shaman in this area.  But despite this change, the tribal rituals and the burial offerings are one and the same, except that sacrificial animal burials are sometimes seen for the priestess status, but none have been found for the shamans. Davis-Kimball goes on to discuss other local groups with shamanic practices.

Stacie Mallas

Chapter 7: The Advent of the Amazons.  112-131.

Davis-Kimball explores the idea that the Amazons may have not been a real society or actual phenomenon.   In fact, this chapter focuses on how the Amazons may have been a myth to serve as a warning to Greek women of the repercussions of disobeying Greek laws. 

Davis-Kimball begins her discussion by referring to the Louvre’s epinetron, which depicted both Amazons fighting in combat and the reality of Greek women’s life – “working wool.”  With this in mind, Kimball begins to investigate cultural differences between Amazons and Greek women.  She uses primary sources as a way to construct her search.  She finds many inconsistencies with the Amazon stories and locations, which suggests to her that the Amazons, in the way they were described, may not have existed at all.  Davis-Kimball states, “I was compelled to stress that there simply is no physical evidence to date that a tribe of women warriors ever lived separately from men and engage in the exploits celebrated in Greek, and later Roman, art and literature” (121).  

She compares the lives of the Athenian women and Spartan women.  While both have different lifestyles (and the Spartan women seem to have more freedom), both are constrained by the laws and men. The democracy in Athens restricted the women time and time again.  No Athenian woman could partake in community events or be out in the public eye; instead, they were forced to stay at home. 

Davis-Kimball points out that perhaps to satisfy the Athenian women’s mind from thinking about rebelling from societal norms (and from the unjust way in which they were treated), the men came up with the tale of the Amazon to demonstrate how corrupt an all-women society would be in this time period: “Women who were athletic and strong, traveled around freely, and shunned male society became a band of bloodthirsty, headstrong, promiscuous vixens who were forever aligning themselves with enemies of the Greeks.” (129)  And it is always inevitable that the Amazons would fail and be defeated by any man they encountered.  So the Amazons may have never physically existed in the Greek culture, but they were psychologically real and alive within every Athenian’s mind to deter women from obtaining their rights.

Amy Pollard

Chapter Nine:  Ancient Fertility Rituals in the Tien Shan (p 153-168)

This chapter, although very interesting and educational in the science of anthropology, gives little to no insight regarding Amazons or even any warrior women at all.  This chapter does however show a culture where women had power influence, and respect.  Davis-Kimball discusses a stone cliff in China with a wall of petroglyphs that appear to relate to a fertility ritual of some kind.  The etchings show women drawn to a much larger scale than the males, and this can be interpreted as meaning that women of that culture had power and perhaps even some level of dominance, at the very least respect for their ability to reproduce.  This chapter does not include any direct references to the Amazons.  It describes little-known evidence of a culture of powerful women in China.  

Pauline Shipley 

Ed. By Jeannine Davis-Kimball, Vladimir Bashiolv, and Leonid Yablonsky.  Nomads of the Eurasian Steppes in the Early Iron Age “Chapter 4” (1995):  Zinet Press, Berkely. Chapter 4:  “A Brief Review of the History of the Sauromatian and Sarmatian Tribes” by Mirina Moshkova.

This chapter, written by a leading Russian archaeologist of Sarmatian tribes, describes Sauromatian and Sarmatian tribes between the approximate dates of 700 BC and 400 AD.  The chapter goes into full detail describing their language, geographical location, gender roles, and relations to outsiders, political history, and archaeological evidence of the tribes.  Moshkova proposes that one group of Sauromatians, living on the Eurasian steppes, mated and became one group with the Amazons.  She then explains her interpretation of how this new combination became known instead as Sarmatians.  Moshkova explains that this transformation occurs according to a general time frame, between the 4^th and 2^nd century B.C., when authors no longer spelled these names the same way.  According to Moshkova, no introduction of a new group was made, but the existence of the original group, Sauromatians, underwent a simple name change.  Ancient authors such as Eudox, and Theophrastus begin using the names “Sirmatians” and “Sarmations” in place of the usual “Sauromatian” spelling.  From this point forward, the group consisting of Amazons and Sauromatians became known as Sarmatians. 

Also explained are the struggles between tribes over territory and the formation of a union between the Sarmatians and the Alan nomadic groups.  Excerpts from primary sources are given; such authors include Herodotus, Diodorus Siculus, and Strabo.  The chapter concludes with the fall of what became known as the Alans-Huns group. 

This chapter is followed by, “History of the Studies of the Sauromatian and Sarmatian tribes.”  It includes more archaeological evidence for their existence along with a brief history of how and when the tribes have been studied.  The entire book gives everything from projectile points, domestic vessels to belt plaques for all nomadic groups of this region.  The entire work gives good descriptions of the sections on “Scythians”, the “Saka” and the “Early Nomads of Mongolia”.  It was written for a more educated but not professional crowd.

Studying the women of Sauromatian tribes shows parallels to the study of Amazons.  Gender roles of both tribes were similar.  The Sauromatian tribes show archeological evidence of their existence and therefore one can draw conclusions from this evidence of the true existence of Amazons. 

Deacy, S. (1997).  Athena and the Amazons: mortal and immortal femininity in Greek myth.  In, What is a God?  Studies in the Nature of Greek Divinity.  Ed. Alan B. Lloyd. London:  Duckworth.  153-168.

Deacy’s focus is how Athena is viewed in Greek culture and how she distorts the norms of society.  She uses the Amazons as a comparison to emphasize her arguments while exploring the importance of partheneia (virginity) and andreia (manliness) within the “transgressive” Amazonian culture and Athena’s lifestyle.  She uses a variety of literary sources to emphasize her points. 

While Athena has several similarities with the Amazons, she is different.  The Amazons are seen in a negative light and are always defeated in battle with men, but Athena is revered as “a permanent symbol of a warrior female who aligns herself with male society” (157).  Ironically, the highly regarded Athena undermines the idea of “societal norms.”  Deacy strives to prove Athena’s ambivalent position by comparing Athena with the Amazons in three areas:  marriage, location, and the center of civilization. 

While the Amazons maintained their partheneia in the sense of not having a traditional marriage experience, Athena is a virginity symbol.  She rejects the idea of marriage, an important aspect in the “male society.”  She is a part of male society, but deviates from this crucial custom.  The Amazons and Athena originate from similar locations.  Amazonland is associated with Lake Tritonis in Libya.  Athena is also associated with this region in the Athenian myth.  Athena competed with Poseidon for “patron deity” and it is thought that she came to Athens for the competition far away from Athens as well as Greece.  Like the Amazons, Athena came from the outskirts of civilization.  However, she is in the center of Athenian culture where as the Amazons were outside invaders.  Athena may have similar characteristics and background, but her status in Athens was dramatically different and “represent[ed] continued disorder within society”(165). 

Amy Pollard  

Fantham, Elaine (1994).  Women in the Classical World. Oxford University Press. Chapter 4: Amazons-Women in Control.

The book as a whole discusses ideas of women in the Greek and Roman worlds.  There is information about the Hellenistic period, theories on female anatomy and medicine, marriage, Etruscan women, and sexuality.  The book goes into depth about what philosophers and doctors in antiquity wrote about the female reproductive system.  These anatomy authors are all male whose theories have been disproved by the information and resources we have today on female and male anatomy.  Chapter 4 begins with a focus on an excerpt from Lysias.  Brief summaries of Herakles ninth labor, the Trojan War, and Theseus are also discussed.  It contains pictures of vase and plate paintings with images of Amazons present as well as a description of each.  This chapter puts emphasis on the Amazon’s defeat.  There are ideas on how they were defeated, by whom, and how this influenced Greek thought.  It mentions the Amazon breast myth and male-infant-killing.  It shows Amazons as man-hating and marriage-hating in the beginning of the chapter.  Later, Herodotus’ account of Amazons and Sycthian young men is talked about, and a somewhat different view comes into the reading.  According to Herodotus, Amazons were willing to marry and have men mates.  Herodotus’ theories are discussed further than other authors in this chapter.  This chapter is an excellent starting point for basic information on Amazons.

Heather Slade Congo

Hardwick, Lorna (1990).  Ancient Amazons – Heroes, Outsiders or Women?  Greece and Rome  36.1: 15-36.

In “Ancient Amazons – Heroes, Outsiders or Women”, Hardwick examines the varying descriptions of the legendary Amazons contained in the works of scholarly writers of antiquity.  It is a chronological review of the written sources relative to the correlation between the developmental changes in the portrayals of the Amazons over time and the changing ethos of the Greeks as to their perceptions of themselves.  According to Hardwick the contextual emphasis of the various written accounts indicates two essential differences in perspective. In the epic poetry of Homer and later in the writings of Pindar, the Amazons are described in admirable terms relative their military prowess, heroic achievements and as “worthy opponents”. Herodotus and Hellanicus in the latter half of the fifth century B.C. depict the Amazons in terms of their alternative lifestyle, social organization and “otherness” as counter to Greek conventions.  The Amazon theme takes a more dramatic turn between the fifth and fourth centuries B.C. as illustrated in the accounts of Lysias and Isocrates in which they are describes as invaders and, although “formidable” warriors, no match for the superior Greek fighting force.  In this regard the sources are attempting to boost the morale and inspire the Greeks to unite against outside barbarian threats. In the late first century A.D., Plutarch utilizes the Athenian defeat of the Amazons at the hands of Theseus to emphasize the Hellenic feminine attributes of subservience, loyalty and submission.  Strabo dismisses the notion of female military prowess and political acumen since it challenges the Greek way of life and view of the world. 

Utilizing the detailed records of D. von Bothmer, Hardwick continues the analysis of the differing perspectives on Amazons by tracking the changes in the artistic themes of vase paintings and sculpture.  Of the available artifacts, most of the Black Figure vase paintings dating from the latter half of the sixth century B.C. show Amazons in battle scenes featuring Andromache against the lion-skinned Heracles suggesting that the primary interest was in the Heraclean version of the battles with a secondary interest in individual Amazons.  The Amazons are shown in distinctly Attic and Corinthian armor and clothing that is likely based on the artists perception.  Later Black Figure vase paintings continue Heraclean theme continues to dominate with Amazon clothing seemingly more Athenian; however, social scenes of Amazons do appear during this period in preparation for battle, riding horses and driving chariots. With the move to Red Figure vase painting there is a shift in emphasis to that of the abduction of Antiope by Theseus and the Amazons portrayed in oriental dress suggesting that the Greeks were in contact with eastern cultures.  By the fifth century B.C. there is also an increase in the depiction of battle scenes on a grand scale and, at the same time, a more feminine portrayal of the Amazons in spite of the militaristic theme that implies the Greek attitude relative to the innate weakness and inferiority of their enemies and their view of themselves as heroic and superior.

Elizabeth Hailey

Kurtz, Donna; Sparkes, Brian.  The Eye of Greece: Studies in the Art of Athens.  Caimbride University Press.  New York 1982.  Chapter 1:  Herakles, Theseus and the Amazons

This book gives an overview of Athenian art as well as devoting a chapter to the depictions of Amazons with Theseus and Herakles in various sculptures.  Looking at approximate dates of these sculptures (the earliest proposed date of Amazons in art being 700BC, where they are seen on the shield from Tiryns) helps us to determine the time of the creation and of the popularity of the different stories.  The chapter also shows how different images can be interpreted and how the stories may have changed over time.  Five main pieces are discussed in the chapter; the Athenian Treasury at Delphi, the Theseion, the Stoa Poikile, the Fourteen West Metopes of the Parthenon, and the Shield of the Athena Parthenos.

The Treasury at Delphi is described in the most detail.  It has many images of Theseus with Amazons on its long side, and images of Herakles on its shorter side.  It shows these champions defeating the Amazons, who were often shown as parallels to the Persians.  One instance of this in the art is the depictions of the invasion of Attica by the Amazons, because the Amazons are usually defenders, but in this case they are the instigators.  The Persians invaded Greece, and the Greek defeat of both the Persians and Amazons at Attica shows the parallel. 

Chapter one is the only chapter in the book which really discusses Amazons, but it does give in great detail the art and stories of the time; it can however be difficult to get through without a basic understanding of the stories of the Amazons.  It would be an excellent reference on Amazons in art, but would not be the best choice for someone new to the subject or pleasure. 

Megan Blaskovich

Lefkowitz, Mary R. (1986).  Women in Greek Myth.  Baltimore, MD: The John Hopkins University Press.

This article concentrates on aspects of women’s experience that have been most frequently misunderstood in recent literature. In chapter one, “Princess Ida and the Amazons,” Lefkowitz looks at how and why distortions in myth occur.   Lefkowits starts out by introducing a poem by Tennyson, “The Princess”, which describes the creation and demise of a women’s college.  The Princess seeks first to have an environment that expresses the ideals of her institution (rules of celibacy and withdrawal).  Of these legendary and mythical role models, only the Amazons have been taken seriously by feminist scholars, probably because they represent a whole society, and not just the singular achievement of an extraordinary individual.

Taking an objective and analytical approach, she explores the texts of primary sources like the author of Airs, Water, Places, Herodotus, Aristotle, Plutarch, and Homer. Excerpts from these ancient sources are given showing how each ancient source offered a slightly different description of the Amazons (the descriptions included the marriage law, removing the right breast, disjointing lower extremities of male babies, how the babies were fed since they did not use breasts).  From these different descriptions of the Amazons, Lefkowitz was able to describe how distortions in myth occur.

In her exploration, Lefkowitz also looks at art, archeological evidence, social documents (gravestones, wills, marriage contracts), the Greeks view/treatment of Amazon societal values, and makes comparisons to mythologies of matriarchy in other cultures. 

This chapter is very informative and contains many primary sources dealing with Amazons as well as other mythological characters and stories.    

Leon, Vicki (1995).  Uppity Women of Ancient Times.  New York: MJF Books.

This book contains over 100 women’s names.  With each name comes a summary of their life, the time period they lived, and unique empowering facts about them.  The author starts out with women from the Babylon and Mesopotamia such as Kubaba, Shudi-Ad, Shibtu, and Kiru.  The second chapter is on women from Egypt and North Africa icluding Ahotep, Hetpheres, and Nefertiti.  Chapter three is on women from Asia Minor and the Holy Land such as Mastigga, Deborah, and Jezebel and, chapter four focuses on Greece including women named Sappho and Phryne.  The final chapter discusses women from Rome and Western Provinces such as Cornelia, Hortensia, and Locusta.  There is one reference to a female gladiator named Amazonia, who fought in as amphitheater with a woman named Achilla.  The author goes into a brief description of women gladiators stating that some were chosen because they were war hostages or criminals.  The author also includes a selected bibliography filled with books that would also be useful in the studies of ancient women.  This book is a great tool for tidbits of information on women of antiquity.    

Heather Slade Congo

Shapiro, H.A.  “Amazons, Thracians, and Scythians,” Greek, Roman and Byzantine Studies (1983) 105-114.

This article gives a great description of what the Amazons looked like in art.  Shapiro includes the stories of the Amazons’ ‘exploits’ with three important Greek heroes: Herakles and Hippolyte, Penthesilea and Achilles, and Theseus’ abduction of Antiope. 

Black Figure vases are described next, depicting Amazons as “most often shown as heavily armed hoplite warriors, outfitted with short chiton, cuirass, greaves, crested helmet, round shield, and spear – in short, indistinguishable from their Greek opponents, apart from the white-painted flesh which marks them out as female” (106).  This exemplifies the chapter and its way of describing Amazons in art.

Shapiro then tells of the difference in the Thracian and Scythian warrior races, stating on page 106: “The appearance of ‘Thracian Amazons’ and ‘Scythian Amazons’ in vase-painting … offers some insight into Greek ideas about Amazons at a time when literary sources are silent…” Using this art as a reference and example, he describes the equipment, dress and lifestyle of the Thracian and Scythian Amazons, explaining the difference in the half-moon shaped shield of the Thracians and the quivers of the Scythians. 

The last topic to be explained is Amazonamachy in Red Figure vases during the sixth century and the first decade of the fifth century BCE.  The Red Figure period is described in as much detail as was the Black Figure, for example stating that the Red Figure Amazon costumes were “unique:  one short tunic with woven bands of animal and abstract ornament and tasseled fringe” (113).

Shapiro does an excellent job of describing the art of the Greek Amazons in a way that all can understand.  I would recommend that everyone read this article prior to the discussion of Amazons in art because it clarifies much of the murky water that surrounds this subject.

Lauren Oliver

W.B. Tyrrell (1984). Amazons: a study in Athenian mythmaking. Batimore and London: The John Hopkins University Press

Chapter 4: Amazons: Sons and Daughters in Limbo

The boys in Greek society were expected to become warriors and the girls were to be wives and mothers. The myth of the Amazons in Greek culture was used to explain what happens to women who did not follow the moral codes that were established for them; this also applied to the Greek gods and goddess. The purpose of the myth was to set an example of the way not to behave, because Amazons violated the moral standards that were established.

Tyrrell suggests that the Amazons were failures as women because they were thought of as daughters who did not comply with the ideals of being married and having a family. Greek women married men and left the houses of their mothers to live with their husbands. Like Greek women, Amazons had sex with males to bear children, however they did not leave their mother’s house to be with a husband.

The Greek female rite of passage was marriage. Plutarch advises the new bride to focus all her attention and affection on the family of her new husband.  The amount of labor she could perform and her reproductive capabilities were owed to her new family. The transition from girl to woman is measured not by marriage but by making her husband a father. The Amazon is the reversal of what Greek society wanted for a woman. She technically was rebelling by refusing to carry out her role as a traditional Greek woman. Instead she took on the role of the man, by learning the skills of fighting. The society of this time sees this as being a betrayal. The role of the woman was to produce hoplites. This helps build a stronger future for Greek society. The Amazon reproduced for herself,  making her own people strong.

Tyrrell discusses Herodotus’ story of the Amazons’ relations with Scythian youths. These youths  left  their homelands as a rite of passage and  entered the lands of the Amazons, a land near the Thermodon. The Scythians were much like the Amazons in their ability to hunt, use a bow and arrow, and also to ride horses. The Scythians wanted to be a part of society now that the Amazons were their mates. However the Amazons had a code in which they abided by. This prevented the Scythians from ever being able to form the type of society that they wished for. The Amazons held their mates in limbo with them.

The Amazons’ likeness to men was considered to be liminal by the Greeks. 

Tyrrell also discusses Amazons’ hostility toward  marriage. Ephorus said they were raped by their husbands. In return the Amazons killed their husbands  and did not receive any more men that returned from war. A different account has the Amazons as women who had had their husband slain. The reaction of the women was to take up arms to avenge their husbands.

The Amazons are considered by the Greeks to be like the boy who refuses to become a man.   Representations of similar characteristics are present in other Greek mythological figures. One example of this is the youth Melanion who hates women. He denies the patriarchal marriage laws by fleeing for a life of solitary hunting. According to Theognis, a female of this type of mythological character is Atalanta. She was abandoned by her father, nursed by a bear, and raised by hunters. These types of characters are said to have the same mentality as that of the Amazon.

Amazons in myth were said to have their own religion. It was a direct expression of the ideals they believed in. They worshipped Ares, and the Phrygian Mother, Cybele also known as Artemis of Ephesus and  Artemis Tauropolos. Artemetis and Cybele are goddesses of fertility. They, much like the Amazons were regarded by the Greeks as foreign and barbaric. The Amazons worshipped the gods who were in favor of the castration of men and the god constantly at war. The myths suggest that Amazons felt wronged by men killing and raping women, so through their religion they gave these men a taste of their own medicine.

The example set by the myth of the Amazon women in Greek society was that of the incomplete woman. She was a woman who did not fulfill her societal role as a wife and mother. Instead she acted against society by learning the ways of a man. By doing this she hindered the advancement of the Greeks traditional life by failing to produce hoplites. She was considered a daughter in limbo.

Ashley Swinson

Van Bothmer, Dietrich. Amazons In Greek Art. Oxford: The Clarendon Press, 1957.

Chapter I.  Early Amazons

This chapter focuses on a fragmentary votive shield of Argolic shape, which is the earliest piece of art with recognizable Amazon occurrence.  The terra-cotta piece was found in Bothros at Tiryns.  The artwork shows two large, presumably male figures and three smaller figures, of which one Von Bothmer identifies as an Amazon.  There are many post-geometric elements (pattern and filling ornaments) found in this piece.  No names are inscribed and there are no safe or reliable details of armor and heraldry (heroic attributes) on the two shields.  There is also a fragmentary piece of terra cotta relief from Attica shown in this chapter.  Achilles’ name is inscribed on this piece, which is late 7^th to early 6^th century and it appears to show a fallen amazon.

Chapter II. Attic Black-Figure  The Second Quarter of the Sixth Century B.C.

A.     Herakles and the Amazons

Most of these pieces contain inscriptions. On almost all of the pieces there are animal friezes.  The animals represented in the various scenes include boars, cocks and sphinxes, youths on horseback, swans, centaurs, cattle of Apollo, hounds, and foxes.  Many sports are also represented (chariot races, horse races, judging, and prizes).

B.     Amazonomachies without Herakles

These pieces have no inscriptions and it is very unclear what myth the piece is portraying.  Some may be the battle of Troy and others may be the battle of Themiskyra with Herakles omitted.  Scenes and artwork are much like those that do feature Herakles as far as armor and arms. 

C.     Single Amazons, Without Opponents

Seventy-odd vases in this category prove the popularity of the Amazons after being introduced into Attic-black painting.  Von Bothmer discusses the names ascribed to Amazons in vases with inscriptions. Herakles is named seven times Andromache is the favorite among the featured Amazons to oppose Herakles.  Antimache takes her place once.  Pantariste is the victorious Amazon on two pieces.  Overall, nine Greek names and twenty-six Amazon names are inscribed (sixteen of which are certain).  The Amazons are depicted many times wearing leopard-skin, short, belted tunics (white and red spots).  One scene shows the gates of Themiskyra guarded by Amazons.  This is the only representation of Themiskyra of antiquity. Tyrrhenian style pottery (cups, pots, vases) is also represented here.

Chapter III. Attic Black Figure: From the Middle of the Sixth Century to the End of Attic Black-Figure

This section has put together the Heraclean Amazonochies.  In these pieces the hero is usually featured with two or more other Greeks each fighting an Amazon.  These pieces of art have bigger figures and overlapping techniques.  Herakles sometimes uses a club as a weapon against the Amazons.  This is the first time that the club appears as his weapon (he normally uses a sword or spear).  The Amazons wear Attic helmets and L-shaped cheek pieces and their garments have scale patterns in most of the scenes.  Herakles wears his usual lion-skin.  Most of the scenes show three duels occurring. Shield devices that are used by the Amazons include tripod and balls, snake and plastic, arcs, ivy wreathes, bull’s head, thunderbolt, rings, stars, and a box of a chariot.  There are variant compositions used in these pieces: Amazon behind Herakles is a hoplite and faces right, Amazon (hoplite) runs off to the left, Amazon (hoplite) runs off to the left looking round, Amazon behind Herakles is an archer and runs off to left, the same but looking round, and an archer collapses facing right.  The standard costume of the contemporary Amazons is an Attic helmet, short chiton, and a corslet.

Jessi Millwood

Chapter IV, Attic Black-Figured Amazonomachies, without Herakles

This chapter, as is stated above, is primarily concerned with Attic Black-Figured Amazonomachies without Herakles.  It deals with everything from a single Greek and a single Amazon in combat, to scenes where there are three combatants, to surviving pottery with several groups of combatants, to mounted combat.  For each of these rather broad descriptions, the author has subdivided the chapter into sections dealing with every possible combination in the larger headings that have surviving representation.  Many of the descriptions are accompanied by black and white photo plates that can be found in the back of the book. 

David Bird

Chapter V, Attic Black-Figured Amazons 

The main theme of this chapter is that Amazons are not always shown in battle.  Many times, they are also shown getting ready for battle.  Many of the examples provided show Amazons preparing for battle, putting on armor, collecting weapons and shields, and in other ways steeling themselves for their inevitable conflict with men, which seems to always be their fate.  There are also scenes of Amazons on horses, riding, as well as mounting and dismounting.  Amazons are also shown harnessing and preparing chariots.  These could be interpreted two ways: they might be preparing for battle, for there was chariot warfare in ancient Greece, or perhaps preparing for a festival or race.  Chariot races were popular in ancient Greece, and probably were not used in battle that much, as much of the Greek topography is irregular and hilly, and so ill suited for such combat.

Chapter IX: Attic Red Figure: Archaic and Later

The majority of the vases and cups in this collection are related to the Attic black figure that is mostly associated with Amazon and Heracles figures.  Yet very few are found with the red Attic figure technique. Even though the technique had changed the figures did not. Amazons were still depicted as being overpowered by Heracles. White was soon added to the black and red vases and cups to add depth to the scenes.

The cups on the other hand did not show the overpowering of Amazons, rather they showed their different actions, such as hunting, gathering, and of course fighting the Greeks. Artists of such cups have chosen to show them in three different views. First, is the traditional half view in which you only see half their bodies. Second, is the full frontal view, so the designs of their clothes can be seen. Finally, there is the three quarter view in which you for example could see their whole right side but only a partial view of their left. Details on the vases and cups vary from the contrast of light and dark of a Corinthian helmet to the shapely muscles of Heracles. As the artistic abilities advance, the movement on the vases and cups become more visual and important to the pieces. Animals are also becoming more relevant to the artwork.

Charlotte Floyd

Chapter X: Attic Red Figure: Early Classic - Classic

Van Bothmer describes seventeen vases in this section that show large battle scenes that rage all the way around the vases. The vases are drawn from monumental Amazonomachies that were created in Athens between 460 and 438 BCE by Mikon and Phidias.

 The Athenian Amazonomachies were displayed on the Painted Porch on the Acropolis and other famous places in Athens. Since the paintings of the above artists do not exist anymore and were not clearly explained by the ancient authors, we can only assume that their influence was depicted on the artwork we see in the vases and cups displayed in this section. Polygnotus was a contemporary of Mikon so in his work we can hopefully see the influence Mikon had on him. His illustrations can be seen but the art historians are not sure if the work truly belongs to Polygnotus or of his colleague Mikon.

In the first set of vases there are a trio of Greeks, an Amazon hoplite, and an Amazon archer. As a Greek stabs the Amazon a slight hint of action is shown as she falls to the ground. The remaining sets of vases depict different battle scenes, showing Amazons with arrowed spears lunging them towards the Greek soldiers. Another shows the Greeks capturing an Amazon with a drawn sword. In these scenes shrubs and flowers may be displayed along with animals to show possible symbolism. There are some pieces in which the sole purpose is to show the detail of what the Amazons are wearing, including shield designs which may lead us to think there may be hidden meaning displayed.

The chapter goes on to describe many similar battles scenes.  Some show the Amazons actually winning, but mainly they are succumbing to the Greek men. 

Charlotte Floyd

Summary:

Amazons in Greek Art is a somewhat difficult book to read and interpret. I highly recommend it for scholars and serious researchers.  In order to understand and appreciate the work you should already know or research the different shapes of pieces used by the Greeks during these times, as well as to know what the pieces are used for.  For example, males and females would have had different shaped pieces for different uses, and therefore different scenes would be present on each piece according to which sex would be using it and what it would be used for.  An important thing to keep in mind is that Von Bothmer is conveying his interpretation of these pieces.  Other interpretations should be researched to insure the consistency of the author’s opinion of each pieces meaning.

All of the pieces described in these chapters are archeological finds, and much of the art on the pieces conveys the myths and stories of the ancient Greeks.  Most of the pieces in these three chapters are male pieces (amphora, hydria) and show scenes of war between Herakles and Andromache, as well as other battle scenes between Greeks and other Amazons. 

Jessi Millwood  

Summary 2

The audience that the author is writing for seems to be students, because most of the descriptions and examples are easy to understand and analyze.  However, he also includes some descriptions that would not be in every student’s knowledge, and so it might be targeting the body of scholars and researchers interested in this subject.  But for the most part, it seems the book targets the lay reader with easy to understand topics and descriptions.  The author works from pictures and pottery that he has seem, and some of these are included in the photo plates in the back, but there are times that he will make reference to a piece that he has not seen but read about, or has only heard of through others. 

On the whole, the book is easy to understand and filled with examples that could be used in papers and projects.  It is also a good reference for studying pottery and sculpture art, with an emphasis on Amazons and their interactions with men. 

David Bird

Weinbaum, Batya (1999). Islands of Women and Amazons: Representations and Realities.  University of Texas Press.

Chapter Two: pp 31-60

In this chapter Weinbaum discusses how the probable existence of Amazons has not only influenced epic poetry but also generations of later writers.  For example, the Beat generation was immensely influenced by the idea of  Amazons.  Allen Ginsberg, a Beat Generation writer, was influenced by the Amazon myth more than others.  “Allen Ginsberg’s Collected Poems 1947-1980 reveals women as psychotic, deranged breeding machines...[his] use of the word Amazon also illustrates the typical reactionist endency – to apply it to women who ins some way transgress the prevailing cultural norms of femininity.” (31-33)

Weinbaum also discusses works by later scholars and authors: “Elizabeth Gould Davis, a librarian, authored a book entitled The First Sex(1971); she declares in this book that the Amazons in the early myths pointed to a reality outside textual walls”(38).  Donald J. Sobol provides a summary of various theories on Amazonism current at the time.

Weinbaum concludes that it matters very little whether the Amazons in antiquity actually existed; whether they were a return of the repressed in a reactionist male fantasy or whether they were, more likely, a combination of both”(55-56).

Chapter Two of Island of Women and Amazons is written primarily from a scholarly perspective and is intended for those who specialize in the field.  However, I think that it is a reasonable text for serious scholars.  The majority of the “evidence” derives from second hand encounters such as: books written on the subject by other authors, or stereotypes about Amazons that were derived from an authors’ prejudice toward the opposite sex.

Chapter Three: pp 61-73

In this chapter Weinbaum how “Feminists have engaged in the process of reviving old myths through acts of reclamation”(62).  She describes how “Feminist linguists Cheris Kramarae and Paula Treichler in A Feminist Dictionary(1985) began the  reclaimed definition of an Amazon simply as ‘powerful female.’  The old images, forms, symbols, and stories found in ancient myth have all been revitalized.  This feminist movement has all suggested that the Indo-Europeans were once a matriarchal culture that worshipped the powerful female...” and that “the Amazons were the last of the original Indo-Europeans to remain in their homeland”(62).

Weinbaum describes how different authors and poets describe the Amazons: “A poetic interpreter, Calasso, portrayed Antiope as a dead virgin warrior to who Achilles wants to engage in intercourse with as he holds her lifeless body in his arms; apparently; apparently the lifeless body is a “turn on” for Achilles”(63).  “The assumption made by Calasso is that men are to rule, and that women exist either to help in that rule or to betray“(63).  “Culture has associated Amazon tribes with snakes and snake worship”.  “Siculus, abut 60 B.C., pinpointed Medusa as queen of a tribe of Amazons called Gorgons which were destroyed by Hercules so as not to allow a country of women to damage his reputation”(64).  “These Gorgons were grandchildren of Gaea, who had serpents for hair“(64).  “Amazons are usually linked with steeds and horses, more work might be necessary to uncover the relation to myths of all the powerful horse goddesses who can beget children without men“(65).

This chapter of Islands of Women and Amazons is very interesting; good for both research and recreational reading.  The sources were taken mainly from modern books: and it leaves the reader to try to decipher the concept of Amazons.

Chapter 4: Problematizing the Greeks: Tragic Flaws in the One-Breasted Amazon Argument

In Batya Weinbaum's Islands of Women and Amazons, she raises the question of the accuracy with which Amazons are presented throughout the course of literature.  Weinbaum argues that with the continuation of Amazon representation in literature emerges a more distorted and inaccurate portrayal of these women warriors.  In fact, Weinbaum cites several scholars on the subject of Greek patriarchal society and how its biased views of male superiority helped downplay the positive feminine power existing in the Amazon archetype. Weinbaum argues that because of the "threat" of a possible society where females coexisted amiably apart from the support and dominance of men, the Greeks had to distort the reality of the Amazons to maintain superiority to them.

Weinbaum uses the term "Amazon" to support her case that Greek literary evidence does not present factual descriptions of the Amazon archetype.  Throughout the second half of the chapter she asserts that many translations of the word "Amazon" may be mistranslations, basing much of this on the fact that the word was never of Greek origin.  In addition, she points out that archeological evidence shows how Greeks misrepresented the Amazons.  In this way she discounts the assumption that Amazons were women who seared or severed their breasts in an attempt to deny their feminine qualities or motherhood.  She argues this point by claiming that Greeks understood the breast to be a source of power for a woman because it was a vessel by which life was infused into a child.  By representing Amazons as one-breasted women, the Greeks were able to withhold a certain power and strength from these warriors.  However, Weinbaum discredits the Greeks time and again as she meticulously describes other possible interpretations of the word - interpretations that seem much more probable than those of the Greeks.  By citing several scholars on the subject, Weinbaum suggests that the Greeks' patriarchal mentality skewed the true image of the Amazons - the representation of the Amazon archetype as well as the interpretation of their name.    

Chapter 7: The Second Phase: Focus on the Femininity of Penthesilea

Batya Weinbaum's Islands of Women and Amazons gives a comprehensive study on the Amazon archetype, Greek thought concerning Amazons, and changes in the way Amazons were viewed in later literature. In Chapter 7, Weinbaum focuses on the shift in thought from early Greek portrayals of the Amazons to later renditions of these women warriors. By citing various literary sources, Weinbaum weaves a portrait of the "early" Amazons as being large, dominating, fierce warriors who moved as one in groups. Weinbaum sites the Homeric documents as proof of this early version of the Amazon. However, she describes in great length the "Trojan Cycle," poems recounting the history up to the 12th c. B.C. where the Homeric poems left off, as being the core documents that describe a vastly different Amazon. Written centuries later, these "second phase" poems describe the Amazon woman as soft, more feminine, and individualized. These warriors who were once viewed as flat characters - simply fighters - are now viewed as round characters incorporating individualism and feminine deeds performed for the gods.

Weinbaum uses Penthesilea, Queen of the Amazons, to prove her point in this shifting thought of the Amazon. Later portrayals of Penthesilea show a more feminine fighter adorned in handsome clothing. And while she may be from pure literary origin, Penthesilea is an important example of the new individualized Amazon. Written literature moves us from a collective group of fighting women to a focus on one beautiful warrior. Even her name is important, conveying this emphasis on individualism. "Penthesilea" means "compelling men to mourn" because of her exquisite beauty. With a focus on the individualized Amazon comes a shift in power. No more are these women viewed as fierce warriors but beautiful women who could be loved and conquered. Again, Weinbaum cites several literary texts warning of the new misconception of the Amazon. While the Homeric Amazon was portrayed as an androgynous fighter, the second phase of the Amazon presents a woman beautiful, vulnerable, feminine, and easily conquered. This chapter sites several literary sources written by researchers on the subject and may be viewed as a scholarly text written for students who are majoring in Classical Studies.

Summer Stanger

Chapter Eight (128-151)                                                                                                         

Apparently, the myth of the infamous Amazons is a two-sided coin.  In this chapter Weinbaum discusses two (???? time period) literary works with very different depictions of Amazons.  Garcia Rodriques de Montalvo formulated a fairy-tale in his volumes of books known as the Sergas de Esplandian, but Christine de Pizan seems to have an objective view when speaking of her warrior women.  Fore example, Pizan says in her book, The Book of the City of Ladies, that Amazons were women in a state of strength and could overcome any hurdle they approached; she focuses on their intellect, prowess, and ingenuity(129).  “Pizan’s amazons were intelligent, resourceful, cooperative, nurturing, strong, brave, courageous, practically dressed and creative“(128).

However, Montalvo’s Amazons were the antithesis of Pizans; Montalvo’s Amazons were the epitome of a ‘stereotypical 1950’s housewife; that is to say, “they were silly, vain, over-dressed, erotic, helpless, cruel, and inept”(128).  “Montalvo’s Amazons were also depicted as evil giants attracted to male dominance”; they killed their male children, while Pizan’s amazons gave their male children back to the paternal parent”(129).  “Montalvos’s Sergas de Esplandian was taken from a story of imagination and love that was especially popular in the 1300s; it grew into twenty-four volumes”(132).  “Women were individualized and debased as they became objects for men; they were sources of paganism and witchcraft which men had to tame”(133).  “Montalvo’s Esplandian mentions the fact that men in power feared that breast-feeding children would diminish their partiarchal rule by creating maternal loyalties”(147).

The sexist attitude of Montalvo and the feminist attitude of Pizan provide entertaining reading. But also, people who are uncertain about the phenomenon of Amazons will inquire more about Amazons because this chapter fuels the fire of curiosity that one will have about Amazons.

Wilde, Webster Lyn.  On The Trail of The Woman Warriors:  The Amazons in Myth and History.  New York:  St. Martin’s Press, 2000.

In this book, Lyn Webster Wilde attempts to explore the validity of the Amazon myths of Greek Antiquity by comparing the works of ancient authors, woman-warrior elements in other mythologies, and archaeological findings suggesting the presence of female warriors among the Eurasian Sauromatians. 

While the premise of the book is to investigate whether or not the mythology of the Amazon was based in fact, Wilde tends to deviate from her topic.  While the first chapter, "Essence of Amazon," is useful in that it compares a number of primary source materials that offer various information on the Amazon myth, and her second chapter, "The Secret of the Steppes," provides informative evidence concerning the archaeological findings that suggest the presence of females in the warrior caste of the Sauro/Sarmatians, following chapters find her losing focus.  "Artemis, Bright and Dark" and "The Medusa Face of the Goddess" finds the Amazons all but abandoned in order to explore various incarnations of the goddess Artemis, although again, several primary sources are quoted here, and Wilde does draw some connections between Artemis, Cybele and Dionysus, and the Amazon mythos.  Subsequent chapters do the same, discussing such divergent topics as Turkish dervishes and Inanna's descent into the underworld, and gems such as the myths concerning the Libyan Amazons and the discussion of the African Akan receive only small sections.  There seems to be an underlying motivation throughout the book, which leans more toward the search for a matriarchal proto-religion than exploring the validity of the Amazon myth. 

Much of Wilde's book hinges on unsubstantiated connections and conclusions based largely on supposition, which weakens the focus of "Women Warriors" considerably.  The majority of this book's merit rests on its wealth of quoted primary source materials and the detailed information concerning the Sauromatian gravesites. 

Chris Malpass

Fiction

Pressfield, Steven (2002). Last of the Amazons. (???Place) Doubleday.

Pressfield’s book, Last of the Amazons, is a fictional account of Theseus and the Amazons told from the point of view of a young noble girl, Bones, who was brought up by a captive Amazon named Selene (“moon”).  The story takes place in Athens where Bones begins her narrative, then flashes back to the time of Theseus and Antiope. Theseus sets out on a voyage in the Black Sea to trade with the neighboring tribes. Most of the tribes react hostilely to the Greeks, killing many of them. Finally the Greeks fall upon the land near Mound City where the different tribes of Amazons also known as tal Kyrte ( the “free people”) congregated once a year to trade and mate with men. They ask the Amazons for help, and the Amazons grudgingly take care of them. The Amazon tribe was led by a war queen, named Antiope.  Theseus and Antiope fell in love, and they made a baby together. The tribe was enraged that Antiope could love a man, thus they banished her. Theseus decides to bring Antiope back to Athens before the Amazons decide to kill her. This enrages the Amazons even more to the point that they gather a huge army of all the Amazon tribes, and many of their neighboring tribes to march against Athens and get their stolen queen back. Eleuthera (“freedom”), who was part of Antiope’s trikonai (bond of three “loves”), takes over as war queen in her tribe.

The Amazons and the army arrives at Athens two years later, destroying every building, and killing every Greek man they come upon. They flatten many of the nearby city-states, so Athens has no place to turn to for help. Antiope comes out of the Palace to face the foe in combat along with the Athenian army.  Antiope then meets Eleuthera in battle with no weapon, and was killed by Eleuthera. Since the main reason the Amazons came to Athens was now dead by their hand in battle, they had no more reason to fight. They made peace with the Athenians and began the long trek back to their homeland. On their way back many of the surviving Amazons were killed by the people whose land they passed through or by a tribe that had gone to war with them who only wanted goods and money. The Amazons were nearly wiped out because of this war over one woman.

This book seems to be based on some primary sources written by ancient Greeks historians such as Herodutus and Diodorus. Most of the Amazons customs in this book may have been made up.  It portrays the Amazons very effectively even though we do not have any primary sources from the Amazons themselves.

Audrey Germane

Ancient Authors

Alexander Romance (Anonymous) (Ancient Novel, c. 140-340 CE)

The “Alexander Romance” is an ancient novel which presents Alexander the Great in a mythical way. This story even suggests that Alexander was the son of a god, and not of Philip of Macedonia. The author was said to have been a man living in Alexandria between 140 and 340 CE. It is thought that this author used writings from Kallisthenes, Alexander’s court historian, and falsely ascribed this work to him (Dowden, 650).

In this novel, Alexander learns that the Amazons lived on the river Thermodon. In a letter to Alexander, the Amazon queen gives a description of her society. One interesting thing she says is that her society has its male members, but they are restricted to doing agricultural work while the women provide the protection. She also mentions that if any of the Amazons wish to end their virginity, they can go live with the men on the other side of the island, but must return any female children to the Amazons at the age of seven. These Amazons seem to be in large numbers as the queen talks of an army of 120,000 Amazons.  As Alexander reads the letter that is sent to him by the Amazon queen, full of threats from a courageous woman, he is surprised, and he is even more amazed when he finally encounters these women and their society. He describes them as intelligent, tall, strong and beautiful. They wore clothes with bright colors and made their weapons out of pure silver.

This story is a mythical portrayal of Alexander the Great, and his mythical encounters. Yet the idea is not to suggest that Alexander did not exist, but that he is worthy of having his life glamorized with lavish and far-fetched tales of triumph and victory. Many aspects of this story have been proven to be historically accurate, and this could possibly be the case about the Amazons. The “Alexander Romance” could simply be portraying these two great historical icons in the colorful and mythical way which both greatly deserve.

HERODOTUS (Historian; ca. 484-430 BCE)

Around 450 BCE Herodotus set out to explore the causes of the conflict between the Greeks and Persians that led to the Persian Wars.  His stated purpose was to leave for all time a record of the past accomplishments and “marvelous deeds” of Greeks and non-Greeks. For Herodotus, this went beyond battlefield exploits.  Herodotus traveled extensively throughout the ancient Mediterranean world; and, during his travels he gathered information on the histories of various ancient cultures that included the origins, politics and military, customs and traditions, religious beliefs, legends and folklore as well as physical descriptions of the inhabitants. Herodotus also provided physical descriptions of the regions in which he traveled that included information on geography, natural phenomena and man-made wonders.  There were few historical narratives by which Herodotus could be guided; thus, he utilized the methods that were available to him – oral inquiries and personal observations.  For human histories he was dependent upon oral tradition that included some eyewitness testimony, expert testimony as might be provided by temple priests, and hearsay evidence.  In most instances Herodotus did not name his sources and chose instead to refer to them in general terms; however, he does occasionally provide more than one version of a particular incident and often offers his opinion as to the validity of some of the stories he was told.  Herodotus later compiled his findings into a written record that later historians have entitled The Histories.  Cicero and later scholars have referred to him as The Father of History.

 Herodotus’ story of the Amazons is his version of the origins of the Sauromatae tribe and is contained within his account of the planned invasion of Scythia by King Darius of Persia.  He began his tale of the Amazons from their defeat at the hands of the Greeks at the River Thermodon and their eventual arrival at the Cliffs on Lake Maeotis in Scythia after they had overcome their Greek captors.  The account includes information on their encounter with and ultimate pairing with young Scythian males, their lifestyle as riders of horses and huntresses with bows and spears, and their eventual settlement with their Scythia partners on the other side of Tanais.  Implying that the Amazons were the ancestors of the Sauromatae tribe, Herodotus says that the women of the Sauromatae continued to observe the old ways of hunting on horseback with or without the men, taking part in war and wearing men’s clothing.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

• Herodotus. The Histories.  Translated by Aubrey De Selincourt. London: Penguin  Books Ltd., 1954.  Revision, London: Penguin Books Ltd., 1996.

•  Rhodes, P. J. “In Defence of Greek Historians.”  Greece and Rome.  Vol. xli, No. 2 (Oct. 1994).  156-171.

•  Stoppard, Tom.  “Herodotus and His Contemporaries.”  The Journal of Hellenic Studies.  Vol. cxvi (1996), 62-87.

• Waters, K. H. Herodotus the Historian.  Norman, Oklahoma:  University of Oklahoma Press, 1983.

Elizabeth Hailey

Homer (Epic Poet, c. 700 BC)

Homer was a blind lyric poet who traveled in Greece and told his epics around 700 BCE.  He composed The Iliad and The Odyssey.  There is some debate as to whether or not Homer was in fact a real person in history, or whether this name represents the collective work of many oral poets.  Homer’s works influenced epics for centuries to come.

The Iliad is a tale about the ten-year war between Greece and the Trojans.  The war was started over Helen, the kidnapped wife of Menelaus of Sparta, to bring her back to Greece.  The Odyssey is the tale of Odysseus’ ten-year journey back to his home in Ithaca. 

Homer briefly mentions the Amazons in the Iliad as war-like women who waged war with men as their equals, and openly waged war with other countries, with Phrygia mentioned as an example.  This battle was where King Priam was exposed to Amazons, and so knew of their ferocity in battle. 

Homer’s epics were probably sung, and were presented in a manner that was both easy to understand and extremely entertaining.  His works had to amuse the listeners without any kind of visual aid.  However, since they were told through singing and related from one story teller to another by word of mouth, no one knows when or why they were first written down. 

Bibliography

• Rouse, W. H. D.(1944).  Homer, London: Thomas Nelson And Sons Ltd. 111-143.

• Silk, Michael (1987). Homer: The Iliad. Cambridge University Press, 5-7.

PLUTARCH (Essayist, Biographer; ca. 45 B.C.E – 123 A.D.)

Plutarch was born in the Greek town of Chaeronea and, except for periods of travel to Asia, Egypt and Italy, preferred to remain in the town of his birth.  Although he spent the last years of his life as a priest at Delphi during the Roman revival of the Oracle and in municipal service in Chaeronea, his literary works occupied most of his time and enthusiasm.  Unfortunately, much of his writings have been lost to time. The two works, for which Plutarch is most renown, are a collection of moral essays entitled Moralia and Parallel Lives (often referred to as Plutarch’s Lives).  Plutarch’s Lives is a collection of historical biographies of some of the leading figures in ancient history in which he most often parallels the lives of Greek and Roman subjects. The purpose of his work was not necessarily to offer a complete examination of historical events but to offer insight into the personalities of his subjects and moral lesson. In his life of Theseus, the legendary Athenian hero and king, Plutarch included the story of the Amazon invasion of Greece.

According Plutarch, Theseus commanded his own navy and sailed to the land of the Amazons near the Black Sea.  The Amazons, “…being natural lovers of men…”, sent Antiope to Theseus’ ship with gifts; and, taking advantage of the situation, Theseus captures her and sails away.  In retaliation for the kidnapping of Antiope, the Amazons journey to Attica, set up camp just outside Athens and battle Theseus and the Athenians.  The siege lasted four months during which time many Amazons were killed as evidenced by the many graves and monuments that lined the streets leading to the city.  After four months, Plutarch stated that Hippolyta mediated a peace treaty between the Amazons and the Athenians and that it was Hippolyta, not Antiope, who Theseus married. Although Plutarch indicated that there are other accounts of the episode between Theseus and the Amazons, he discounted those in favor of the version he offered.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

• Cannon, John, Davis, R.H.C., Doyle, William, and Greene, Jack P., eds. (1988). The Blackwell Dictionary of Historians.  New York, New York:  Basil Blackwell, Inc.

• Hardwick, Lorna (1990).  “Ancient Amazons-Heroes, Outsiders or Women?”  Greece and Rome 36.1:15-36.

• Plutarch.  Lives English and Greek. Vol. IV. Perrin, Bernadotte, trans.(1967).  Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press

Elizabeth Hailey

Strabo (Geographer, 1^st century BCE)

Strabo was born in either 64 or 65 BC in the city Amaseia.  His family was able to send him to excellent schools as he was growing up.  He was well educated because of his schooling, and he traveled the world, visiting several countries, always maintaining an interest in their geography.  Some philosophers and teachers that Strabo studied under were Artemidoros, Publius Severus Isauricus, Xenarchos, and Poseidonios.  His only work is the Geographika.  In this work, he writes his account of what the Amazons were like.  He presents his theory on Amazonian reproduction, stating that the Amazons had promiscuous intercourse with the Gargarian men.  The agreement between these two communities was that when the babies were born, the girls would be kept by the Amazon village and the boys would be kept by the Gargarian village.  Also in his work, he questions the existence of Amazons attributing to the assumption that women couldn’t have possibly done the things that the sources say Amazons did, such as fighting and winning in battle, riding horses better than men, and surviving without men in their society.  Strabo is a great author to study when researching Amazons, reproduction, and the survival of their race.  An informative website to find more information on Strabo’s life is  http://www.kanyak.com/strabo.html

Web Sites

Amazons: Minerva-Roman (Oct. 25, 2002) <http://www.geocities.com/Wellesley//1582/amazons.html>

This site has three main sections: an Introduction, a section on whether Amazons were real or not, and a section on modern Amazons.

The introduction portrays Amazons as fierce warriors who wielded their own spears and swords in order to defend children and motherland.  This source says that Greeks considered the Amazons their most fearsome opponents and that the Greeks are responsible for naming them “Amazons” from a-mazos (“without a breast”).  The site describes Amazons as fighters and defeaters of the greatest Greek heroes.  The Amazons are said to have retreated into the mountains of Anatolia and Armenia and Bactria after patriarchal warriors invaded their lands.

Real/Not Real: The site explains that historically, the Amazons that the Greeks wrote of seem to be tribes of women and possibly men who fought armed invasions by the Indo-Europeans.  Some tales of the Amazons seem to be fictitious and they assume the role of “the other” to which all negativity is directed (doubts, fears, prejudices).  Amazons are the direct opposite of proper women. 

The authors observe that evidence throughout the world has been found of women warriors as standard features of society.  Noble Japanese families daughters were trained for battle, Joan of Arc and other Medieval European women were soldiers in battle, African folk-history has women warriors, and during the Civil War Vietnamese women were savage warriors.

The Amazons of fiction are always very noble and courageous, intelligent and extremely independent.  Throughout history, while the role of women has changes, women have fought to improve their quality of life by battle (some on the actual battlefield, others on picket lines, in the classroom, etc.). A further breakdown of Amazons into traditional, social, political, economic, educational, environmental, journalistic, and religious categories is given.

This website has some very interesting perspectives about Amazons.  Some of which seem to agree with what the primary sources has said about Amazons.  The breast issue, where the Amazons ended up, who they fought and other issues are all addressed, as well as the big question of the actual existence of Amazons in the past and now.  It is very interesting how this website also points out that women everywhere today could still be considered “modern” Amazons (women standing on picket lines, in textile mills, hospitals, college, etc) who are fighting for improvement in their lives. This is a great source that is easy to read and understand; however, its credibility is not certain.  For those people doing research in the areas mentioned above (the breast issue, where they ended up, etc) I highly recommend using the website as a different perspective as to how Amazons are thought of.

Jessi Millwood

 Amazons - Real Warrior Women or Ancient Myth? (October 29, 2002) http://tx.essortment.com/amazonswarrior_ryci.htm#Amazon's warrior women or ancient myth? Written by Martina Bexte

The website, “Amazons – Real Warrior Women or Ancient Myth?” questions whether Amazon warrior women belonged to an extinct matriarchal warrior society or if they were simply fictional characters depicted in ancient Greek mythology. This website provides the reader with a brief, but helpful, overview of the Amazon society. The overview includes Amazon worship: the women are described as being descendants of the god of war, Ares, and as worshipping Artemis, the goddess of the hunt.  Training in the art of combat, as well as taming and riding horses, were included in the overview.

The website also mentions the Scythians.  Herodotus wrote of these nomadic warriors as being an extremely barbaric and bloodthirsty race, skinning and beheading slain adversaries and shaping their skulls into drinking cups.  Tombs of these fearless warrior women have been excavated, in Pokrovka, by Russian archaeologists, and a few of contain remains of what they believe were Scythian royalty.

The website explores the text of primary sources like Herodotus, Homer, Hippocrates as well as Russian archaeology to support the evidence that the race of Amazons actually existed. 

The author believes that certain cultures held women in higher esteem some even riding alongside men into battle.  But the author states, “whether any of these long-dead women found in Pokrovka kurgans could actually be the mythical Amazons of Greek legend has yet to be confirmed – or may never be proven.  For the foreseeable future, research and speculation continues.” 

Kristin Jones

Brave Women Warriors of Greek Myth: An Amazon Roster.  (September 30, 2002). http://whoosh.org/issue12/ruffel3.html

It is important to understand the significance of the different Amazon women.  Julie Ruffell has taken the time and energy to research and organize the many Amazon women into an informative web page.  She completed this page as her IAXS Research Project in 1997. Although the basis of this project and her credentials are unknown, her work appears to be an honest effort.  She concentrated on the Amazons of Greek myth.  As the introduction she gives the basic definition of an Amazon (meaning “without breast”) and suggests that they could have been called that to help persuade women to not take up archery.  She then describes how the women were portrayed historically, as fierce warriors and how the myths spread to many parts of the world, and the influence they still have today in art and popular culture (Wonder Woman and Xena). 

The website many consists of an alphabetized list of eighty-two of the Greek Amazons.  Each women is listed along with a brief description of her importance, whether it be who she was related to, who she fought in battle, or what her name means.  This appears to be a very complete list, with much research involved, though without references to primary sources.  She also focuses on “Amazons as a Part of Our Culture” and discusses the ways that their myths have helped to spread feminism.

I think that this website is helpful in understanding the roles that different Amazon women had in their society, and it makes the women seem more human and personal to understand what tasks or battles they undertook. I would suggest this website for anyone who is beginning to learn about Amazons or would like to know more about specific Amazons.

Dawn Sides 

GenderGap.com (September 30, 2002)  Website Author, Marilyn Brown

Marilyn Brown’s purpose for the GenderGap.com website is “to provide the facts and figures which document the unequal opportunity and treatment based on gender; the analysis which puts it in context; and the ideas I believe useful in eliminating it.”  While her goal is not pertinent to our study, her website contains useful information.

The section that is most relevant to the topic of Amazons is the “Women Warriors” section.  It retraces historical accounts of women warriors all over the world from different time periods.  The introduction mentions Jessica Salmonson, a historian, who gives a historical background of two different Amazon societies.  Salmonson explains that the Gorgon Amazons were Libyan warriors from Tritonia.  They were ultimately destroyed by a “volcanic eruption with the surviving portion forming the present day Canary Islands.”  There are more accounts of different groups of Amazons within the website that would help in our project by providing examples of women warriors that actually existed.

The website refers to international discoveries of Amazon-like groups throughout history.  Beginning in Ancient Rome and Greece, Archidamia battles Pyrrhus.  In the 1^st century AD, Triaria stood at her husband’s side as he walked into battle.  These women possess Amazonian characteristics.  Also, there are actual accounts of Roman women gladiators.  The Middle East had its share of women warriors as well.  For instance, Arabian Queens led their own armies of women; specifically, Septima Zenobia from Syria “led her armies on horseback wearing full armor.”  This parallels the Amazons’ use of horses in combat.  Africa women warriors, like Judith, Queen of Falash (937AD), invaded Ethiopia and slaughtered all of its citizens much like the ransacking and invasions of the Amazons.  Two Vietnamese women, Trung Trae and Trung Nhi, led a peasant revolt in the 1^st century in an attempt to free the Vietnamese from Chinese rule.  The adamant and rebellious Celts also display Amazonian characteristics.  In 590 AD, a law was made to stop Celtic women from being in the military and the “women warriors refused to lay down their arms and comply with it.”  South America has evidence of women warrior tribes. 

These are just a few accounts of Amazonian behavior exhibited by different cultural groups.  There are many more available on the website.  While this website does contains no primary source information regarding the Amazons, it does provide brief accounts of contemporary women warriors.

Amy Pollard 

Mysteries of Ancient History and Archeology: The Amazons  http://www.myrine.at/Amazons/ (Sunday, Sept 29, 2002) 

 “The Amazons” is a website that gathers much of common knowledge about Amazons and puts it into a concise and well-organized system whereby tidbits of information can be gathered quickly and easily.  Even the most casual peruser will likely find something of interest in the few moments it takes to glance over the information available.  The page is intended to act as incentive to join the organization that sponsored it, and offers much more information and access to qualified sources upon receiving membership.  While founded by a scholar and archeologist with a background of fifteen years devoted specifically to the topic of Amazons, the organization that updates the site does not give any specifics as to the qualifications of those doing the updating.  There may be other scholars involved, but there may also be afficianados who wish to add the latest rumor to the grandiose amount of information apparently hidden within this website.  Mag. Gerhard Poellauer, himself, is considered a historian and archeologist, but no others in the Amazon Research Subscriber Network are named or cited.  There are, however, a large range of sources and alternative readings cited further down the page. 

The sources and suggestions listed are varied, but their focus seem fairly similar.  Johann Jakob Bachofen’s book, Myth, Religion, and Mother Right, seems well researched, but was written at a time when it was popular to believe that the origin culture was a matriarchy.  Robert Graves, with The Greek Myths, seems to be the most balanced source, and less influenced by popular opinion of the day.  Both sources, however, should be carefully weighed, as new research has since been brought to light and may contradict the findings therein.  The site also mentions various electronic resources available for study.  The site itself is sectioned off for different specifics in Amazon research.

Near the top is a section for Amazons in ancient literature, a topic most students would already be familiar with.  While not in-depth, the pictures available are interesting and give some minor insight.  The next few sections focus in on the Amazons of different regions: Turkey, Lemnos, and Lybia.  In each, there is the invitation to join the organization, thereby gaining access to even more detailed information.  There is more information to be found in the areas for Lemnos, but much of it seems to be speculation based on current popular myth.

While the quality of the information is generally good, it sometimes seems a bit questionable.  There are connections made, and conclusions reached, that seem based entirely on taking myth as fact in an effort to prove the myth true.  The website frequently mentions the discovery of Troy, which was accomplished by following the information given in the ancient epics, and seems intent on following suit.  Again, without verification that scholarly contributors are the primary sources, it is difficult to determine how much credibility can be given to the information available.  One must assume the authors to be little more than hobbyists, and take all unverified facts to be merely the opinion of a group interested in proving the existence of ancient Amazons.

Thomas Lamkin

Second View:

The website, www.myrine.at/Amazons/index.html, contains information in which scholars, researchers, and people that are interested at the subject at hand can put up suggestions for the site, propose idea, and add their own knowledge to the site as well.  It is completely funded by the Amazon Research Subscriber Network, which is a nonprofit organization and is completely focused on research for historical facts on Amazons.  The site covers the characteristics of the Amazons in ancient literature; gives notes, pictures and archaeological finds from the Thermadon River in northern Turkey; discusses recent research investigations on the island of Lemnos, and describes findings of negroid Amazons and pottery showing their existence. At the end of the first page there are book recommendations if one is interested in a particular section.

The section entitled “Characteristics of the Amazons in Ancient Literature” covers mainly what people already know of the Amazons such as their warrior like women who fought Greek heroes. There are also a lot of different vase paintings depicting and describing their characteristics.

The “Amazons from the river Thermodon” section covers the theory of the Amazons dwelling place in Themiskya and some artifacts found in that area. This section also shows pictures of the particular area thought to be inhabited by groups of Amazons.

“Amazons of Lemnos”: Lemnos was an island in which the ancients called gynaikokraturnene meaning “reigned by women.”  The site talks of the myth surrounding the island and the one who ruled as queen, Hypsipyle. Recent archaeological findings show a city on this island named Poliochni, in which is about twice the size of Troy. In this section there are also descriptions on how the city was found and what the excavations could mean to the real existence of Amazons. The excavations were done by the Lemnos Research Campaign, in order to create more of a connection between Lemnos and the Thermodon River.

The “Amazons from Libya” is a rather short section that has one to two brief paragraphs and pictures to show evidence of negroid amazon women. This website gives the viewers the opportunity to volunteer their knowledge and information as well as review some books involving the subject matter.

Charlotte Floyd

A third View

This website has its main objective to find out whether or not the Amazons were myth or fact. Because there are so many mysterious sections in history that we know little about, some people assume that they were mythical part of history. The author of the website goes on to say that if people regarded a lot of history as mythical, then the discovery of Troy would have never happened. The author says the idea of the Amazons, that they could be on their own without men, seems to be impossible to the academic world today. This webpage is a research oriented site that has many different opinions and possible evidence towards the existence of the Amazons.

The website offers may links to information about Amazons. A link about them mentioned in ancient literature will bring up pages about ancient stories and artwork concerning the Amazons in Greece. The next link will bring up information about the Amazons of Thermodon, and the archaeological findings of these women in that area. Next is a link about the Amazons of Lemnos, which goes to a page about the mythical tales of these women and their ancient possession of this island. Last is a link about Libyan Amazons which argues for the archaeological evidence for the existence of these women in Africa.

The site also gives many book and electronic book references of information about Amazons.

Its very informative for those who have never really heard about Amazons or looked at any evidence about them.  I would not recommend this site to people seriously studying Amazons as many better and more detailed references can be found for those with a more in depth study.